{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4389576861","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/embc40787.2023.10341034","title":"Scaling of Algorithmic Bias in Pulse Oximetry with Signal-to-Noise Ratio","display_name":"Scaling of Algorithmic Bias in Pulse Oximetry with Signal-to-Noise Ratio","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-07-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4389576861","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/embc40787.2023.10341034","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38082980"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/embc40787.2023.10341034","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/embc40787.2023.10341034","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2023 45th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine &amp; Biology Society (EMBC)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5080901594","display_name":"Jiaming Cao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2766-5788"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jiaming Cao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mel-lon University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mel-lon University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028135615","display_name":"Neil Mehta","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Neil Ashim Mehta","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mel-lon University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mel-lon University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062350470","display_name":"Jingyi Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3666-5082"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jingyi Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University,Department of Biomedical Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University,Department of Biomedical Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022252939","display_name":"Sossena Wood","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3079-1096"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sossena Wood","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University,Department of Biomedical Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University,Department of Biomedical Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5016248083","display_name":"Jana M. Kainerstorfer","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9481-8377"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jana M. Kainerstorfer","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University,Department of Biomedical Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University,Department of Biomedical Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054746425","display_name":"Pulkit Grover","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7651-7776"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pulkit Grover","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mel-lon University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mel-lon University,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,Pittsburgh,PA,USA,15213","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5080901594"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.16865284,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"102","issue":null,"first_page":"1","last_page":"4"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11196","display_name":"Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11196","display_name":"Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10977","display_name":"Optical Imaging and Spectroscopy Techniques","score":0.9991999864578247,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11324","display_name":"Spectroscopy Techniques in Biomedical and Chemical Research","score":0.996399998664856,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1304","display_name":"Biophysics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/13","display_name":"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scaling","display_name":"Scaling","score":0.6581752896308899},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/signal-to-noise-ratio","display_name":"Signal-to-noise ratio (imaging)","score":0.5833742022514343},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/saturation","display_name":"Saturation (graph theory)","score":0.5565198659896851},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistical-physics","display_name":"Statistical physics","score":0.4665182828903198},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noise","display_name":"Noise (video)","score":0.43194708228111267},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/value","display_name":"Value (mathematics)","score":0.4293330907821655},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.4231465458869934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistics","display_name":"Statistics","score":0.3981630206108093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.35376453399658203},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.34363529086112976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.32414013147354126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.1781224012374878}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99844830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102441924","display_name":"Scaling","level":2,"score":0.6581752896308899},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13944312","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7512748","display_name":"Signal-to-noise ratio (imaging)","level":2,"score":0.5833742022514343},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9930424","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7426587","display_name":"Saturation (graph theory)","level":2,"score":0.5565198659896851},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121864883","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q677916","display_name":"Statistical physics","level":1,"score":0.4665182828903198},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99498987","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2210247","display_name":"Noise (video)","level":3,"score":0.43194708228111267},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776291640","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2912517","display_name":"Value (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.4293330907821655},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.4231465458869934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.3981630206108093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.35376453399658203},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.34363529086112976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.32414013147354126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.1781224012374878},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114614502","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q76592","display_name":"Combinatorics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D008543","descriptor_name":"Melanins","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D008543","descriptor_name":"Melanins","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D008543","descriptor_name":"Melanins","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D008543","descriptor_name":"Melanins","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D008543","descriptor_name":"Melanins","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D010092","descriptor_name":"Oximetry","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010092","descriptor_name":"Oximetry","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010092","descriptor_name":"Oximetry","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010092","descriptor_name":"Oximetry","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010092","descriptor_name":"Oximetry","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010100","descriptor_name":"Oxygen","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D010100","descriptor_name":"Oxygen","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D010100","descriptor_name":"Oxygen","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D010100","descriptor_name":"Oxygen","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D010100","descriptor_name":"Oxygen","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D011659","descriptor_name":"Pulmonary Gas Exchange","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D011659","descriptor_name":"Pulmonary Gas Exchange","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D011659","descriptor_name":"Pulmonary Gas Exchange","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D011659","descriptor_name":"Pulmonary Gas Exchange","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D011659","descriptor_name":"Pulmonary Gas Exchange","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D059629","descriptor_name":"Signal-To-Noise Ratio","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D059629","descriptor_name":"Signal-To-Noise Ratio","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D059629","descriptor_name":"Signal-To-Noise Ratio","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D059629","descriptor_name":"Signal-To-Noise Ratio","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D059629","descriptor_name":"Signal-To-Noise Ratio","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false}],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/embc40787.2023.10341034","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/embc40787.2023.10341034","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2023 45th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine &amp; Biology Society (EMBC)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmid:38082980","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38082980","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual International Conference","raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":16,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1972116768","https://openalex.org/W2060387293","https://openalex.org/W2071229756","https://openalex.org/W2078371860","https://openalex.org/W2142600751","https://openalex.org/W2172180370","https://openalex.org/W2562460472","https://openalex.org/W2742341105","https://openalex.org/W2897310138","https://openalex.org/W2914695435","https://openalex.org/W3111737151","https://openalex.org/W4200249081","https://openalex.org/W4214912881","https://openalex.org/W4225276305","https://openalex.org/W4281757670","https://openalex.org/W4285030363"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W141820298","https://openalex.org/W2049584446","https://openalex.org/W2079781215","https://openalex.org/W4378770497","https://openalex.org/W4308245303","https://openalex.org/W2014033564","https://openalex.org/W2910573937","https://openalex.org/W4385571583","https://openalex.org/W4389519396","https://openalex.org/W2113438243"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Recent":[0],"work":[1],"has":[2],"noted":[3],"a":[4,27,96,160],"skin-color":[5],"bias":[6,48,62,80,111,135,166],"in":[7,12,54,63,89,101,137],"existing":[8],"pulse":[9],"oximetry":[10],"systems":[11,25],"their":[13,33],"estimation":[14,141],"of":[15,86,95,116,125,162,164],"arterial":[16],"oxygen":[17,38],"saturation.":[18,39],"Frequently,":[19],"the":[20,30,37,60,72,79,91,106,110,114,117,134,147],"algorithm":[21],"used":[22],"by":[23],"these":[24],"estimate":[26,105],"\"ratio-of-ratios\",":[28],"called":[29],"\"R-value\",":[31],"on":[32,45],"way":[34],"to":[35,52,104,144,150],"estimating":[36,90],"In":[40],"this":[41,165],"work,":[42],"we":[43,131],"focus":[44],"an":[46],"\"SNR-related\"":[47],"that":[49,78,133],"is":[50,142],"due":[51],"noise":[53],"measurements.":[55],"We":[56,76,108],"derive":[57],"expressions":[58],"for":[59],"SNR-related":[61],"R-value":[64,87],"estimation,":[65],"and":[66,93,139],"observe":[67],"how":[68],"it":[69],"scales":[70],"with":[71,153,167],"signal-to-noise":[73],"ratio":[74],"(SNR).":[75],"show":[77],"can":[81],"arise":[82],"at":[83],"two":[84,118],"steps":[85],"estimation:":[88],"max":[92,138],"min":[94,140],"pulsatile":[97],"signal,":[98],"and,":[99],"additionally":[100],"taking":[102],"ratios":[103],"R-value.":[107],"assess":[109],"resulting":[112],"from":[113],"combination":[115],"steps,":[119],"but":[120],"also":[121],"separate":[122],"out":[123],"contributions":[124],"each":[126],"step.":[127],"By":[128],"doing":[129],"so,":[130],"deduce":[132],"induced":[136],"likely":[143],"dominate.":[145],"Because":[146],"SNR":[148],"tends":[149],"get":[151],"worse":[152],"higher":[154],"melanin":[155,168],"concentration,":[156],"our":[157],"result":[158],"provides":[159],"sense":[161],"scaling":[163],"concentration.":[169]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2025-12-21T01:58:51.020947","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
