{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4292387755","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/coins54846.2022.9854946","title":"Extortion of a Staking Pool in a Proof-of-Stake Consensus Mechanism","display_name":"Extortion of a Staking Pool in a Proof-of-Stake Consensus Mechanism","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-08-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4292387755","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/coins54846.2022.9854946"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/coins54846.2022.9854946","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/coins54846.2022.9854946","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2022 IEEE International Conference on Omni-layer Intelligent Systems (COINS)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"conference-paper","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043415622","display_name":"Alpesh Bhudia","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-6733-032X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184558857","display_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04g2vpn86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alpesh Bhudia","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of London,Royal Holloway","Royal Holloway, University of London"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of London,Royal Holloway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Royal Holloway, University of London","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103091719","display_name":"Anna Cartwright","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1965-842X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I124261462","display_name":"Oxford Brookes University","ror":"https://ror.org/04v2twj65","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124261462"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Anna Cartwright","raw_affiliation_strings":["Oxford Brookes University"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Oxford Brookes University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I124261462"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101430075","display_name":"Edward Cartwright","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0194-9368"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I66943878","display_name":"De Montfort University","ror":"https://ror.org/0312pnr83","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I66943878"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Edward Cartwright","raw_affiliation_strings":["De Montfort University"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"De Montfort University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I66943878"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5059422128","display_name":"Julio Hern\u00e1ndez-Castro","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6432-5328"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20581793","display_name":"University of Kent","ror":"https://ror.org/00xkeyj56","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20581793"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Julio Hernandez-Castro","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Kent"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Kent","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20581793"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5066898395","display_name":"Darren Hurley-Smith","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9896-9308"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184558857","display_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04g2vpn86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Darren Hurley-Smith","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of London,Royal Holloway","Royal Holloway, University of London"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of London,Royal Holloway","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Royal Holloway, University of London","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":7,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"1","last_page":"6"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11182","display_name":"Auction Theory and Applications","score":0.9585000276565552,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1803","display_name":"Management Science and Operations Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.9355000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proof-of-work-system","display_name":"Proof-of-work system","score":0.890447735786438},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/extortion","display_name":"Extortion","score":0.7173306941986084},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptocurrency","display_name":"Cryptocurrency","score":0.6799225807189941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.642386257648468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.637283205986023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/currency","display_name":"Currency","score":0.6197333335876465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/work","display_name":"Work (physics)","score":0.5093172788619995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/database-transaction","display_name":"Database transaction","score":0.4298916459083557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/process","display_name":"Process (computing)","score":0.42818087339401245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proof-of-concept","display_name":"Proof of concept","score":0.4208943247795105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/business","display_name":"Business","score":0.3652198612689972},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/law","display_name":"Law","score":0.19049495458602905},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/political-science","display_name":"Political science","score":0.151942640542984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/economics","display_name":"Economics","score":0.14775055646896362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.11355757713317871}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123436394","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7249984","display_name":"Proof-of-work system","level":3,"score":0.890447735786438},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779066997","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6452087","display_name":"Extortion","level":2,"score":0.7173306941986084},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180706569","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13479982","display_name":"Cryptocurrency","level":2,"score":0.6799225807189941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.642386257648468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.637283205986023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C141121606","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8142","display_name":"Currency","level":2,"score":0.6197333335876465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.5093172788619995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75949130","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q848010","display_name":"Database transaction","level":2,"score":0.4298916459083557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98045186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205663","display_name":"Process (computing)","level":2,"score":0.42818087339401245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124978682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1201019","display_name":"Proof of concept","level":2,"score":0.4208943247795105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.3652198612689972},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.19049495458602905},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.151942640542984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.14775055646896362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.11355757713317871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78519656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101333","display_name":"Mechanical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C556758197","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q580018","display_name":"Monetary economics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/coins54846.2022.9854946","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/coins54846.2022.9854946","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2022 IEEE International Conference on Omni-layer Intelligent Systems (COINS)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:dora.dmu.ac.uk:2086/22433","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2086/22433","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400394","display_name":"DMU Open Research Archive (De Montfort University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I66943878","host_organization_name":"De Montfort University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I66943878"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Conference"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320329018","display_name":"Ethereum Foundation","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4312475206","https://openalex.org/W3194174502","https://openalex.org/W2899359367","https://openalex.org/W4224304430","https://openalex.org/W4285133732","https://openalex.org/W4237285437","https://openalex.org/W2913682208","https://openalex.org/W4200362035","https://openalex.org/W4382371683","https://openalex.org/W4226032731"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Cryptocurrencies":[0],"to":[1,13,36,67,141],"date,":[2],"most":[3],"notably":[4],"Bitcoin,":[5],"have":[6,97,104],"primarily":[7],"relied":[8],"on":[9,18,51,92,133],"a":[10,45,61,86,107,116,134,154],"proof-of-work":[11],"system":[12],"validate":[14],"and":[15,32,70,146],"process":[16],"transactions":[17],"the":[19,55,100,127,143],"blockchain.":[20],"Proof-of-work":[21],"systems":[22,43,78],"have,":[23],"however,":[24],"several":[25],"limitations,":[26],"such":[27],"as":[28],"enormous":[29],"energy":[30],"demands,":[31],"so":[33],"are":[34,115],"likely":[35],"be":[37],"replaced":[38],"by":[39,60,74,153],"proof-of-stake":[40],"systems.":[41],"These":[42],"use":[44],"mechanism":[46],"that":[47],"does":[48],"not":[49],"rely":[50],"mining":[52],"power":[53],"but":[54],"amount":[56,109],"of":[57,94,110,130],"stake":[58],"owned":[59],"node,":[62],"allowing":[63],"randomly":[64],"selected":[65],"validators":[66,91],"create":[68],"blocks":[69,72],"verify":[71],"created":[73],"other":[75],"validators.":[76],"Proof-of-stake":[77],"naturally":[79],"result":[80],"in":[81,85,99],"staking":[82,113,135,144],"pools":[83,114],"where":[84],"third":[87],"party":[88],"organisation":[89],"operates":[90],"behalf":[93],"investors":[95],"who":[96,157],"staked":[98,111],"currency.":[101],"Given":[102],"they":[103],"oversight":[105],"for":[106,119],"large":[108],"currency,":[112],"prime":[117],"target":[118],"malicious":[120,155],"actors.":[121],"In":[122],"this":[123],"paper":[124],"we":[125],"explore":[126],"economic":[128],"implications":[129],"an":[131,150],"attack":[132,152],"pool.":[136],"We":[137],"pay":[138],"particular":[139],"attention":[140],"how":[142],"pool":[145],"clients":[147],"could":[148],"resolve":[149],"extortion":[151],"actor":[156],"has":[158],"accessed":[159],"relevant":[160],"signing":[161],"keys.":[162]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-07-14T23:27:15.235271","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}