{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4389315356","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/cog57401.2023.10333240","title":"Automatic Difficulty Balance in Two-Player Games with Deep Reinforcement Learning","display_name":"Automatic Difficulty Balance in Two-Player Games with Deep Reinforcement Learning","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-08-21","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4389315356","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/cog57401.2023.10333240"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/cog57401.2023.10333240","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/cog57401.2023.10333240","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2023 IEEE Conference on Games (CoG)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"conference-paper","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005109797","display_name":"Sim\u00e3o Reis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7341-2709"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I182534213","display_name":"Universidade do Porto","ror":"https://ror.org/043pwc612","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60858718","display_name":"University of Aveiro","ror":"https://ror.org/00nt41z93","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60858718"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sim\u00e3o Reis","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Porto,Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering,Porto,Portugal","Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal","Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Porto,Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering,Porto,Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60858718"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065172099","display_name":"Rita Novais","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8325-1726"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I182534213","display_name":"Universidade do Porto","ror":"https://ror.org/043pwc612","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60858718","display_name":"University of Aveiro","ror":"https://ror.org/00nt41z93","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60858718"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rita Novais","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Porto,Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering,Porto,Portugal","Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal","Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Porto,Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering,Porto,Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60858718"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5089812166","display_name":"Lu\u00eds Paulo Reis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4709-1718"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I182534213","display_name":"Universidade do Porto","ror":"https://ror.org/043pwc612","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60858718","display_name":"University of Aveiro","ror":"https://ror.org/00nt41z93","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60858718"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lu\u00eds Paulo Reis","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Porto,Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering,Porto,Portugal","Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal","Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Porto,Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering,Porto,Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60858718"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055569781","display_name":"Nuno Lau","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0513-158X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I182534213","display_name":"Universidade do Porto","ror":"https://ror.org/043pwc612","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60858718","display_name":"University of Aveiro","ror":"https://ror.org/00nt41z93","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60858718"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nuno Lau","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Porto,Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering,Porto,Portugal","Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal","Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Porto,Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering,Porto,Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60858718"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory (LIACC) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182534213"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"1","last_page":"8"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11574","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Games","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11574","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Games","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10462","display_name":"Reinforcement Learning in Robotics","score":0.995199978351593,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11197","display_name":"Digital Games and Media","score":0.9929999709129333,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7100743651390076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.6678876280784607},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.5868687629699707},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human\u2013computer-interaction","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","score":0.5082221031188965},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/balance","display_name":"Balance (ability)","score":0.5073265433311462},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control","display_name":"Control (management)","score":0.4711766839027405},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/game-mechanics","display_name":"Game mechanics","score":0.45665159821510315},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement","display_name":"Reinforcement","score":0.4404008686542511},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adversary","display_name":"Adversary","score":0.43264642357826233},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multimedia","display_name":"Multimedia","score":0.3437540531158447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.33434978127479553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.22936204075813293},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.16714614629745483},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-psychology","display_name":"Social psychology","score":0.12584418058395386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.08420327305793762}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7100743651390076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.6678876280784607},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.5868687629699707},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.5082221031188965},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168031717","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1530280","display_name":"Balance (ability)","level":2,"score":0.5073265433311462},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.4711766839027405},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C170828538","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1751513","display_name":"Game mechanics","level":2,"score":0.45665159821510315},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67203356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321905","display_name":"Reinforcement","level":2,"score":0.4404008686542511},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41065033","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2825412","display_name":"Adversary","level":2,"score":0.43264642357826233},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49774154","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131765","display_name":"Multimedia","level":1,"score":0.3437540531158447},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.33434978127479553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.22936204075813293},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.16714614629745483},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.12584418058395386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.08420327305793762},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201995342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682496","display_name":"Systems engineering","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/cog57401.2023.10333240","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/cog57401.2023.10333240","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2023 IEEE Conference on Games (CoG)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320330374","display_name":"Foundation for Science and Technology","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338080","display_name":"European Social Fund","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":40,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W41757025","https://openalex.org/W66940286","https://openalex.org/W1511986666","https://openalex.org/W1555295778","https://openalex.org/W1966871123","https://openalex.org/W1968916129","https://openalex.org/W2035033474","https://openalex.org/W2072511932","https://openalex.org/W2119296376","https://openalex.org/W2126316555","https://openalex.org/W2345694504","https://openalex.org/W2527756557","https://openalex.org/W2528242815","https://openalex.org/W2646036860","https://openalex.org/W2782867311","https://openalex.org/W2783879472","https://openalex.org/W2800827645","https://openalex.org/W2898638632","https://openalex.org/W2901478555","https://openalex.org/W2902275664","https://openalex.org/W2931942906","https://openalex.org/W2976222168","https://openalex.org/W2976373001","https://openalex.org/W2982299286","https://openalex.org/W2993778550","https://openalex.org/W3000086851","https://openalex.org/W3005713034","https://openalex.org/W3011902174","https://openalex.org/W3038338535","https://openalex.org/W3087806187","https://openalex.org/W3094425054","https://openalex.org/W3094704314","https://openalex.org/W3106108588","https://openalex.org/W3213632537","https://openalex.org/W4285283480","https://openalex.org/W6630509169","https://openalex.org/W6739899130","https://openalex.org/W6753526802","https://openalex.org/W6755445700","https://openalex.org/W6990640355"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2920061524","https://openalex.org/W4310083477","https://openalex.org/W4388150944","https://openalex.org/W1977959518","https://openalex.org/W2038908348","https://openalex.org/W2106552856","https://openalex.org/W2089013912","https://openalex.org/W2107890255","https://openalex.org/W2076061571","https://openalex.org/W1987513656"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Regardless":[0],"of":[1,4,26,53,66,127,165],"the":[2,24,51,62,72,82,138,147,153,166,169,177,182,188,192],"goal":[3],"a":[5,10,101,119,124,135,144],"game,":[6],"it":[7],"should":[8],"be":[9,22,29],"pleasant":[11],"and":[12,56,133,143,185],"fun":[13],"experience":[14],"for":[15,90],"its":[16],"players.":[17],"For":[18],"some":[19],"games":[20,167],"to":[21,50,71,112,140,149],"enjoyable,":[23],"level":[25],"difficulty":[27,91],"must":[28],"carefully":[30],"calibrated,":[31],"otherwise,":[32],"players":[33,55],"will":[34],"feel":[35],"bored":[36],"or":[37],"frustrated.":[38],"Multiplayer":[39],"scenarios":[40,76],"in":[41,60,93,137,146,191],"particular,":[42],"where":[43,77,96],"one":[44,67],"player\u2019s":[45],"satisfaction":[46],"might":[47],"not":[48],"translate":[49],"enjoyment":[52],"other":[54],"poses":[57],"extra":[58],"challenges":[59],"balancing":[61,92,97],"difficulty.":[63],"The":[64,163],"performance":[65],"player":[68,136,145],"is":[69,98,173],"relative":[70],"opponent,":[73],"versus":[74],"single-player":[75],"we":[78],"can":[79],"fully":[80],"control":[81],"environment.":[83],"We":[84],"propose":[85],"an":[86],"AI":[87],"automation":[88],"framework":[89],"two-player":[94],"games,":[95,184],"seen":[99],"as":[100],"Reinforcement":[102],"Learning":[103],"task.":[104],"A":[105],"Game":[106],"Master":[107],"(GM)":[108],"agent":[109],"learns":[110],"how":[111],"use":[113],"handicap":[114],"game":[115],"mechanics,":[116],"signaled":[117],"by":[118,175,186],"reward":[120],"function":[121],"that":[122,130,158],"evaluates":[123],"weighted":[125],"combination":[126],"aesthetic":[128,179],"criteria":[129,180],"encourages":[131],"dramatization":[132],"allows":[134],"lead":[139],"go":[141],"back":[142],"rear":[148],"catch":[150],"up,":[151],"creating":[152],"desired":[154],"rubber":[155],"banding":[156],"effect":[157],"balances":[159],"out":[160],"skill":[161],"gaps.":[162],"quality":[164],"with":[168],"trained":[170],"GM":[171],"embedded":[172],"examined":[174],"measuring":[176],"same":[178],"on":[181],"resulting":[183,189],"analyzing":[187],"changes":[190],"game.":[193]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-27T08:26:11.824852","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}