{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7131099539","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/cgo68049.2026.11395232","title":"PriTran: Privacy-Preserving Inference for Transformer-Based Language Models under Fully Homomorphic Encryption","display_name":"PriTran: Privacy-Preserving Inference for Transformer-Based Language Models under Fully Homomorphic Encryption","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-31","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7131099539","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/cgo68049.2026.11395232"},"language":null,"primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/cgo68049.2026.11395232","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/cgo68049.2026.11395232","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2026 IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Code Generation and Optimization (CGO)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5126617319","display_name":"Yuechen Mu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yuechen Mu","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of New South Wales,School of Computer Science and Engineering,Sydney,Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of New South Wales,School of Computer Science and Engineering,Sydney,Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5126622002","display_name":"Guangli Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210090176","display_name":"Institute of Computing Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/0090r4d87","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I19820366","https://openalex.org/I4210090176"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Guangli Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Chinese Academy of Sciences University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,SKLP, Institute of Computing Technology,Beijing,China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chinese Academy of Sciences University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,SKLP, Institute of Computing Technology,Beijing,China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210090176"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121049722","display_name":"Shiping Chen","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210101388","display_name":"Health Sciences and Nutrition","ror":"https://ror.org/0152bt112","country_code":"AU","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1292875679","https://openalex.org/I2801453606","https://openalex.org/I4210101388","https://openalex.org/I4387156119"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shiping Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation,Data61,Sydney,Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation,Data61,Sydney,Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210101388"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5126636239","display_name":"Jingling Xue","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I31746571","display_name":"UNSW Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/03r8z3t63","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jingling Xue","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of New South Wales,School of Computer Science and Engineering,Sydney,Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of New South Wales,School of Computer Science and Engineering,Sydney,Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5126617319"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I31746571"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.44079405,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"57","last_page":"69"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.7649000287055969,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.7649000287055969,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.14239999651908875,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14347","display_name":"Big Data and Digital Economy","score":0.016899999231100082,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homomorphic-encryption","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","score":0.7304999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/correctness","display_name":"Correctness","score":0.6915000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.6636999845504761},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inference","display_name":"Inference","score":0.6338000297546387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.6078000068664551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computation","display_name":"Computation","score":0.5184999704360962},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cloud-computing","display_name":"Cloud computing","score":0.4415000081062317}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7700999975204468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158338273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2154943","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","level":3,"score":0.7304999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55439883","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q360812","display_name":"Correctness","level":2,"score":0.6915000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.6636999845504761},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776214188","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408386","display_name":"Inference","level":2,"score":0.6338000297546387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.6078000068664551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45374587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12525525","display_name":"Computation","level":2,"score":0.5184999704360962},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.46549999713897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79974875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q483639","display_name":"Cloud computing","level":2,"score":0.4415000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118505674","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42586063","display_name":"Encoder","level":2,"score":0.4171999990940094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66322947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658","display_name":"Transformer","level":3,"score":0.38670000433921814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.3529999852180481},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.3440000116825104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179799912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205084","display_name":"Computational complexity theory","level":2,"score":0.3319999873638153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.33059999346733093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113775141","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q428691","display_name":"Computer engineering","level":1,"score":0.30730000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179518139","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5140297","display_name":"Coding (social sciences)","level":2,"score":0.29330000281333923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71745522","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2476929","display_name":"Confidentiality","level":2,"score":0.28600001335144043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2612000107765198},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.2603999972343445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93974786","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1589480","display_name":"Ciphertext","level":3,"score":0.25029999017715454}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/cgo68049.2026.11395232","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/cgo68049.2026.11395232","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2026 IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Code Generation and Optimization (CGO)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321543","display_name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/0426zh255"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334704","display_name":"Australian Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/05mmh0f86"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":23,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W236632755","https://openalex.org/W2031533839","https://openalex.org/W2768174108","https://openalex.org/W2897925395","https://openalex.org/W2899140612","https://openalex.org/W2955401130","https://openalex.org/W2963341956","https://openalex.org/W2963846996","https://openalex.org/W3033405216","https://openalex.org/W3173128495","https://openalex.org/W3207326900","https://openalex.org/W4281792301","https://openalex.org/W4308219437","https://openalex.org/W4385245566","https://openalex.org/W4399516266","https://openalex.org/W4399851001","https://openalex.org/W4402263660","https://openalex.org/W4407196984","https://openalex.org/W4407197185","https://openalex.org/W4407858111","https://openalex.org/W4408903490","https://openalex.org/W4414988693","https://openalex.org/W7131132728"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Transformer-based":[0],"language":[1],"models":[2,87],"power":[3],"many":[4],"cloud":[5],"services,":[6],"but":[7,27],"inference":[8,48],"on":[9,21,49,100,132,142,164],"sensitive":[10],"data":[11,72],"raises":[12],"confidentiality":[13],"concerns.":[14],"Fully":[15],"Homomorphic":[16],"Encryption":[17],"(FHE)":[18],"enables":[19],"computation":[20],"encrypted":[22],"inputs":[23,101,166],"while":[24,111],"preserving":[25],"privacy,":[26],"at":[28],"high":[29],"computational":[30],"cost,":[31],"making":[32],"Transformers":[33],"difficult":[34],"to":[35],"deploy.":[36],"This":[37],"paper":[38],"presents":[39],"PriTran,":[40],"an":[41],"efficient":[42],"CKKS-based":[43],"library":[44],"for":[45,120,174],"privacy-preserving":[46],"Transformer":[47,176],"CPUs.":[50],"Complementing":[51],"the":[52,95],"only":[53,59],"prior":[54],"work,":[55],"RoLe,":[56],"which":[57],"supports":[58],"Bert<inf":[60,134,143],"xmlns:mml=\"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML\"":[61,135,144],"xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\">tiny</inf>":[62,136],"(2":[63],"encoders),":[64,147],"PriTran":[65,112,131],"introduces":[66],"two":[67],"novel":[68],"algorithms":[69],"with":[70,138],"optimized":[71],"layouts":[73],"that":[74],"accelerate":[75],"ciphertext\u2013plaintext":[76],"(CP)":[77],"and":[78,92,118,122,125,141,150,161],"ciphertext\u2013ciphertext":[79],"(CC)":[80],"matrix":[81],"multiplications":[82],"(MMs)":[83],"across":[84],"all":[85],"Bert":[86],"by":[88],"reducing":[89],"costly":[90],"rotations":[91],"multiplications.":[93],"On":[94],"MNLI":[96],"dataset,":[97],"RoLe":[98],"fails":[99],"longer":[102,165],"than":[103],"36":[104],"tokens":[105],"within":[106],"a":[107,171],"5-hour":[108],"per-token":[109],"budget,":[110],"achieves":[113],"average":[114],"speedups":[115],"of":[116],"29.3%":[117],"22.2%":[119],"CP-":[121],"CC-MMs,":[123],"respectively,":[124],"24.1%":[126],"end-to-end.":[127],"We":[128],"further":[129],"evaluate":[130],"scaled":[133],"variants":[137],"additional":[139],"encoders":[140],"xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\">mini</inf>":[145],"(4":[146],"demonstrating":[148],"correctness":[149],"scalability":[151],"beyond":[152],"RoLe\u2019s":[153,162],"limits.":[154],"Within":[155],"current":[156],"FHE":[157],"limits,":[158],"these":[159],"gains":[160],"failure":[163],"underscore":[167],"PriTran\u2019s":[168],"promise":[169],"as":[170],"practical":[172],"approach":[173],"FHE-based":[175],"inference.":[177]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-04-09T08:11:56.329763","created_date":"2026-02-24T00:00:00"}
