{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7155058151","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685995","title":"Efficient Counterexample Generation for Control Systems Using Multi-Fidelity Bayesian Optimization","display_name":"Efficient Counterexample Generation for Control Systems Using Multi-Fidelity Bayesian Optimization","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7155058151","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685995"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3685995","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685995","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685995","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5016214463","display_name":"Zahra Shahrooei","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I155173764","display_name":"Rochester Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00v4yb702","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I155173764"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zahra Shahrooei","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-7899-0514","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I155173764"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5129607531","display_name":"Mykel J. Kochenderfer","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I13805885","display_name":"Vaughn College of Aeronautics and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/056e22e24","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I13805885"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I97018004","display_name":"Stanford University","ror":"https://ror.org/00f54p054","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I97018004"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mykel J. Kochenderfer","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7238-9663","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I13805885","https://openalex.org/I97018004"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5086511671","display_name":"Ali Baheri","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5613-0192"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I155173764","display_name":"Rochester Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00v4yb702","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I155173764"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ali Baheri","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5613-0192","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I155173764"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.45810318,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":null,"first_page":"61902","last_page":"61922"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12814","display_name":"Gaussian Processes and Bayesian Inference","score":0.10660000145435333,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12814","display_name":"Gaussian Processes and Bayesian Inference","score":0.10660000145435333,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11236","display_name":"Control Systems and Identification","score":0.09730000048875809,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10848","display_name":"Advanced Multi-Objective Optimization Algorithms","score":0.0544000007212162,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1703","display_name":"Computational Theory and Mathematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/counterexample","display_name":"Counterexample","score":0.7020999789237976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bayesian-probability","display_name":"Bayesian probability","score":0.46939998865127563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bayesian-optimization","display_name":"Bayesian optimization","score":0.4406000077724457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control-system","display_name":"Control system","score":0.4332999885082245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/control","display_name":"Control (management)","score":0.35420000553131104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/optimization-problem","display_name":"Optimization problem","score":0.351500004529953},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/trajectory","display_name":"Trajectory","score":0.29339998960494995}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162838799","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q596077","display_name":"Counterexample","level":2,"score":0.7020999789237976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6984000205993652},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107673813","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q812534","display_name":"Bayesian probability","level":2,"score":0.46939998865127563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778049539","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17002908","display_name":"Bayesian optimization","level":2,"score":0.4406000077724457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17500928","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959968","display_name":"Control system","level":2,"score":0.4332999885082245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126255220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141495","display_name":"Mathematical optimization","level":1,"score":0.3855000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.36550000309944153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.35420000553131104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137836250","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q984063","display_name":"Optimization problem","level":2,"score":0.351500004529953},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13662910","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193139","display_name":"Trajectory","level":2,"score":0.29339998960494995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158457486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17104301","display_name":"Multidimensional systems","level":2,"score":0.29120001196861267},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C91575142","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1971426","display_name":"Optimal control","level":2,"score":0.2906000018119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47446073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165890","display_name":"Control theory (sociology)","level":3,"score":0.26350000500679016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106516650","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm design","level":2,"score":0.2630000114440918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55660270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5164377","display_name":"Constrained optimization","level":2,"score":0.26179999113082886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.25609999895095825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148764684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q621751","display_name":"Approximation algorithm","level":2,"score":0.25220000743865967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C6802819","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1072174","display_name":"Linear system","level":2,"score":0.25119999051094055}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3685995","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685995","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:b3bd9ca72b9e43b584282e0c6d60cf0c","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/b3bd9ca72b9e43b584282e0c6d60cf0c","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 14, Pp 61902-61922 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3685995","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685995","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.7983095645904541,"display_name":"Affordable and clean energy","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/7"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1559547579","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"692M15-21-T-00022","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332390","funder_display_name":"Federal Aviation Administration"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6555951089","display_name":"RII Track-4:NSF: Safety Validation of Autonomous Systems from Multiple Sources of Information","funder_award_id":"2132060","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332390","display_name":"Federal Aviation Administration","ror":"https://ror.org/05q0y0j38"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Testing":[0],"controllers":[1],"in":[2,124,167,218],"safety-critical":[3],"systems":[4,26],"is":[5,42,227],"vital":[6],"for":[7,117,139,164],"ensuring":[8],"their":[9],"safety":[10,39],"and":[11,90,112,183,199,212],"preventing":[12],"catastrophic":[13],"failures.":[14],"In":[15],"this":[16,53],"paper,":[17],"we":[18,66,100,134,148],"address":[19,120],"the":[20,32,103,113,121,150,154,169,225],"falsification":[21,72,216],"problem":[22,30,55],"within":[23],"closed-loop":[24],"control":[25,181],"through":[27],"simulation.":[28],"This":[29],"involves":[31],"identification":[33],"of":[34,80,153,191,224],"counterexamples":[35],"that":[36,74,196],"violate":[37],"system":[38,105,170],"requirements,":[40],"which":[41,159],"formulated":[43],"as":[44],"an":[45],"optimization":[46,54,71,127,157,202,211],"task":[47],"based":[48,143],"on":[49,144],"these":[50,141],"requirements.":[51],"Solving":[52],"using":[56],"full-fidelity":[57,209],"simulations":[58],"can":[59,85],"be":[60,109],"computationally":[61,206],"expensive.":[62],"To":[63,119],"improve":[64],"efficiency,":[65],"propose":[67],"a":[68,110,136,161],"multi-fidelity":[69,97,125,155],"Bayesian":[70,98,126,156,201,210,214],"framework":[73,84],"uses":[75],"simulators":[76,89],"with":[77],"varying":[78],"levels":[79,190],"accuracy.":[81],"Our":[82],"proposed":[83],"transition":[86],"between":[87,94],"different":[88,189],"establish":[91,149],"meaningful":[92],"relationships":[93],"them.":[95],"Through":[96],"optimization,":[99],"determine":[101],"both":[102],"optimal":[104],"input":[106],"likely":[107],"to":[108],"counterexample":[111],"appropriate":[114],"fidelity":[115],"level":[116],"assessment.":[118],"performance":[122],"limitations":[123],"caused":[128],"by":[129],"manually":[130],"assigned":[131],"simulator":[132],"costs,":[133],"present":[135],"systematic":[137],"method":[138],"determining":[140],"costs":[142],"measurable":[145],"parameters.":[146],"Additionally,":[147],"asymptotic":[151],"convergence":[152],"algorithm,":[158],"provides":[160],"theoretical":[162],"basis":[163],"its":[165],"efficiency":[166],"falsifying":[168],"under":[171],"test.":[172],"We":[173],"evaluate":[174],"our":[175,197],"approach":[176],"across":[177],"various":[178],"Gym":[179],"classic":[180],"tasks":[182],"autonomous":[184],"driving":[185],"scenarios,":[186],"each":[187],"featuring":[188],"fidelity.":[192],"The":[193],"results":[194],"demonstrate":[195],"two-":[198],"three-fidelity":[200],"frameworks":[203],"are":[204],"more":[205],"efficient":[207],"than":[208],"other":[213],"optimization-based":[215],"methods":[217],"detecting":[219],"counterexamples.":[220],"A":[221],"Python":[222],"implementation":[223],"algorithm":[226],"available":[228],"at":[229],"https://github.com/SAILRIT/MFBO_Falsification.":[230]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-04T06:00:05.808912","created_date":"2026-04-22T00:00:00"}