{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7154753402","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685121","title":"RUOD-R: A High-Fidelity Re-Annotated Benchmark for Underwater Object Detection","display_name":"RUOD-R: A High-Fidelity Re-Annotated Benchmark for Underwater Object Detection","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7154753402","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685121"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3685121","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685121","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685121","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5133893690","display_name":"Ali Awad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0315-3718"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I11957088","display_name":"Michigan Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/0036rpn28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ali Awad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Applied Computing, College of Computing, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0315-3718","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Applied Computing, College of Computing, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083316560","display_name":"Ashraf Saleem","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2415-850X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I11957088","display_name":"Michigan Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/0036rpn28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ashraf Saleem","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Applied Computing, College of Computing, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2415-850X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Applied Computing, College of Computing, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119173590","display_name":"Yaman Aljnadi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I11957088","display_name":"Michigan Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/0036rpn28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yaman Aljnadi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6020-9727","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5133846228","display_name":"Evan Lucas","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I11957088","display_name":"Michigan Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/0036rpn28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Evan Lucas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5113991367","display_name":"Sidike Paheding","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4712-9672"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126350171","display_name":"Fairfield University","ror":"https://ror.org/04z49n283","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126350171"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sidike Paheding","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Fairfield University, Fairfield, MI, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4712-9672","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Fairfield University, Fairfield, MI, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I126350171"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060923133","display_name":"Timothy C. Havens","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5746-3749"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I11957088","display_name":"Michigan Technological University","ror":"https://ror.org/0036rpn28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Timothy C. Havens","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5746-3749","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5133893690"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.78998542,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":null,"first_page":"60030","last_page":"60046"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.3458999991416931,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.3458999991416931,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11019","display_name":"Image Enhancement Techniques","score":0.30869999527931213,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11698","display_name":"Underwater Acoustics Research","score":0.0649000033736229,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1910","display_name":"Oceanography"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object-detection","display_name":"Object detection","score":0.7190999984741211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/benchmark","display_name":"Benchmark (surveying)","score":0.5454000234603882},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/underwater","display_name":"Underwater","score":0.46889999508857727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object","display_name":"Object (grammar)","score":0.40610000491142273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/object-class-detection","display_name":"Object-class detection","score":0.39239999651908875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noise","display_name":"Noise (video)","score":0.3407999873161316}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7432000041007996},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776151529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3045304","display_name":"Object detection","level":3,"score":0.7190999984741211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.6424999833106995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6344000101089478},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185798385","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1161707","display_name":"Benchmark (surveying)","level":2,"score":0.5454000234603882},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98083399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3246517","display_name":"Underwater","level":2,"score":0.46889999508857727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781238097","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175026","display_name":"Object (grammar)","level":2,"score":0.40610000491142273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71681937","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3045304","display_name":"Object-class detection","level":5,"score":0.39239999651908875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99498987","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2210247","display_name":"Noise (video)","level":3,"score":0.3407999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.32850000262260437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.30309998989105225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124504099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q56933","display_name":"Image segmentation","level":3,"score":0.2709999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C182521987","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2493877","display_name":"Viola\u2013Jones object detection framework","level":5,"score":0.26739999651908875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29265498","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7047719","display_name":"Noise measurement","level":3,"score":0.25690001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9417928","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1070689","display_name":"Image processing","level":3,"score":0.2533000111579895}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3685121","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685121","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:digitalcommons.mtu.edu:michigantech-p2-3596","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/michigantech-p2/2534","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196391","display_name":"Digital Commons - Michigan Tech (Michigan Technological University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I11957088","host_organization_name":"Michigan Technological University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I11957088"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Michigan Tech Publications","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:24d28c31b59d43b59316df90abc58c97","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/24d28c31b59d43b59316df90abc58c97","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 14, Pp 60030-60046 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3685121","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3685121","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Life below water","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/14","score":0.4359035789966583}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4029426771","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2244403","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5153602857","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"G23AS00029","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332183","funder_display_name":"U.S. Geological Survey"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332183","display_name":"U.S. Geological Survey","ror":"https://ror.org/035a68863"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,38,270],"reliability":[1],"of":[2,63,80,156,197,242,255],"object":[3,119,132,192,268],"detection":[4,161],"models":[5],"fundamentally":[6],"depends":[7],"on":[8,175,207,248],"training":[9],"data":[10],"quality,":[11],"yet":[12],"many":[13,130],"benchmarks":[14],"suffer":[15],"from":[16,106],"missing,":[17],"confused,":[18],"and":[19,91,136,147,168,172,194,200,273],"inaccurate":[20],"bounding":[21],"boxes.":[22],"This":[23],"issue":[24],"is":[25,45,182,226],"particularly":[26,134],"severe":[27],"in":[28,66,143],"the":[29,60,97,111,144,190,195,215,227,231,249],"underwater":[30,54,267],"domain,":[31],"where":[32,210],"visual":[33],"degradations":[34],"amplify":[35],"annotation":[36,65,107,212,220],"errors.":[37],"Real-world":[39],"Underwater":[40],"Object":[41],"Detection":[42],"(RUOD)":[43],"dataset":[44,251],"a":[46,76,84,183,261],"widely":[47],"used":[48],"benchmark":[49,187,264],"that":[50,87,101,129,148,180,219,238],"provides":[51,260],"diverse":[52],"real-world":[53],"scenes,":[55],"but":[56],"its":[57],"annotations":[58,120,272],"reflect":[59],"inherent":[61],"difficulty":[62],"comprehensive":[64],"such":[67],"environments.":[68],"To":[69],"address":[70],"this":[71],"limitation,":[72],"we":[73],"present":[74],"RUOD-R,":[75],"high-quality":[77],"re-annotated":[78],"version":[79],"RUOD":[81],"developed":[82],"using":[83,163],"rigorous":[85],"protocol":[86],"combines":[88],"image":[89],"enhancement":[90],"quality-assured":[92],"professional":[93],"annotation.":[94],"RUOD-R":[95,109,181,258],"retains":[96],"original":[98,145,250],"images,":[99],"ensuring":[100],"performance":[102,162,232],"differences":[103],"stem":[104],"solely":[105],"quality.":[108],"increases":[110],"total":[112],"annotated":[113,142],"instances":[114],"by":[115,122],"3.5\u00d7,":[116],"with":[117,158],"small":[118,135],"increasing":[121],"over":[123],"140\u00d7.":[124],"Our":[125],"comparative":[126],"analysis":[127,236],"reveals":[128,237],"valid":[131,256],"instances,":[133],"visually":[137,201],"degraded":[138,202],"targets,":[139],"were":[140],"not":[141],"dataset,":[146],"matched":[149],"boxes":[150],"exhibit":[151],"localization":[152],"inaccuracy":[153],"(mean":[154],"IoU":[155],"0.83":[157],"RUOD-R).We":[159],"evaluate":[160],"Faster":[164],"R-CNN,":[165],"RetinaNet,":[166],"YOLOv11,":[167],"DynYOLO,":[169],"spanning":[170],"general-purpose":[171],"underwater-domain-specific":[173],"architectures,":[174],"both":[176,211],"datasets.":[177],"Results":[178],"show":[179],"substantially":[184],"more":[185,262],"challenging":[186],"due":[188],"to":[189,240],"increased":[191],"density":[193],"predominance":[196],"small,":[198],"occluded,":[199],"targets.":[203],"A":[204,234],"controlled":[205],"evaluation":[206],"paired":[208],"images":[209],"sets":[213],"contain":[214],"same":[216],"objects":[217],"suggests":[218],"density,":[221],"rather":[222],"than":[223],"coordinate":[224],"differences,":[225],"primary":[228],"factor":[229],"behind":[230],"gap.":[233],"flip-rate":[235],"up":[239],"38%":[241],"detections":[243,254],"counted":[244],"as":[245],"false":[246],"positives":[247],"are":[252],"correct":[253],"objects.":[257],"thus":[259],"reliable":[263],"for":[265],"advancing":[266],"detection.":[269],"new":[271],"related":[274],"metadata":[275],"can":[276],"be":[277],"found":[278],"at":[279],"https://github.com/RSSL-MTU/RUOD-R.":[280]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-07T13:39:58.223016","created_date":"2026-04-18T00:00:00"}