{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7111246509","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3642069","title":"A Comprehensive Taxonomy of UAVs: A Comparative Feature Matrix for Hardware, Capabilities, and Payloads","display_name":"A Comprehensive Taxonomy of UAVs: A Comparative Feature Matrix for Hardware, Capabilities, and Payloads","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-12-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7111246509","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3642069"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3642069","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3642069","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3642069","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Roberto Tacconi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8927-5148"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I861853513","display_name":"Sapienza University of Rome","ror":"https://ror.org/02be6w209","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Roberto Tacconi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8927-5148","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Marco Raoul Marini","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2540-2570"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I861853513","display_name":"Sapienza University of Rome","ror":"https://ror.org/02be6w209","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Marco Raoul Marini","raw_affiliation_strings":["Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2540-2570","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Michele Saraceno","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4473-9520"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I861853513","display_name":"Sapienza University of Rome","ror":"https://ror.org/02be6w209","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michele Saraceno","raw_affiliation_strings":["Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4473-9520","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Gian Luca Foresti","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8425-6892"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I129043915","display_name":"University of Udine","ror":"https://ror.org/05ht0mh31","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I129043915"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gian Luca Foresti","raw_affiliation_strings":["Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8425-6892","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I129043915"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Luigi Cinque","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9149-2175"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I861853513","display_name":"Sapienza University of Rome","ror":"https://ror.org/02be6w209","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Luigi Cinque","raw_affiliation_strings":["Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9149-2175","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Alessio Mecca","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1370-8759"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210130905","display_name":"Unitelma Sapienza University","ror":"https://ror.org/04dfrdm61","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210130905"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I861853513","display_name":"Sapienza University of Rome","ror":"https://ror.org/02be6w209","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alessio Mecca","raw_affiliation_strings":["Università degli Studi di Roma UnitelmaSapienza, Rome, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1370-8759","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Università degli Studi di Roma UnitelmaSapienza, Rome, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210130905","https://openalex.org/I861853513"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":10.0877,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.97762407,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":null,"first_page":"3821","last_page":"3851"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":0.5957000255584717,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10191","display_name":"Robotics and Sensor-Based Localization","score":0.5957000255584717,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11133","display_name":"UAV Applications and Optimization","score":0.227400004863739,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11211","display_name":"3D Surveying and Cultural Heritage","score":0.01549999974668026,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1907","display_name":"Geology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/payload","display_name":"Payload (computing)","score":0.7565000057220459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.5641999840736389},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/taxonomy","display_name":"Taxonomy (biology)","score":0.4352000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature-extraction","display_name":"Feature extraction","score":0.4147999882698059},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.4092999994754791},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/odometry","display_name":"Odometry","score":0.40720000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.3984000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/drone","display_name":"Drone","score":0.39489999413490295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/modalities","display_name":"Modalities","score":0.36579999327659607}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134066672","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1424639","display_name":"Payload (computing)","level":3,"score":0.7565000057220459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7444000244140625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.5641999840736389},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5411999821662903},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58642233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8269924","display_name":"Taxonomy (biology)","level":2,"score":0.4352000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.4147999882698059},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.4092999994754791},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49441653","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2014717","display_name":"Odometry","level":4,"score":0.40720000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.3984000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59519942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q650665","display_name":"Drone","level":2,"score":0.39489999413490295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779903281","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6888026","display_name":"Modalities","level":2,"score":0.36579999327659607},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.34549999237060547},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C173163844","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1761440","display_name":"Multispectral image","level":2,"score":0.33379998803138733},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201995342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682496","display_name":"Systems engineering","level":1,"score":0.33149999380111694},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52102323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1671968","display_name":"Pose","level":2,"score":0.3301999866962433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86369673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1203659","display_name":"Simultaneous localization and mapping","level":4,"score":0.32919999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48103436","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q599031","display_name":"State (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.328900009393692},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.3131999969482422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C60229501","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18822","display_name":"Global Positioning System","level":2,"score":0.30720001459121704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C5799516","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4110915","display_name":"Visual odometry","level":3,"score":0.298799991607666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.2987000048160553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34413123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170978","display_name":"Robotics","level":3,"score":0.27480000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984842247","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep neural networks","level":3,"score":0.2741999924182892},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59404180","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17013334","display_name":"Feature learning","level":2,"score":0.2599000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33954974","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486494","display_name":"Sensor fusion","level":2,"score":0.25699999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.2563000023365021},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779188883","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82446","display_name":"Global Map","level":3,"score":0.2515999972820282}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3642069","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3642069","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:air.uniud.it:11390/1321667","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11390/1321667","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401163","display_name":"Institutional Research Information System (University of Udine)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I129043915","host_organization_name":"University of Udine","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I129043915"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:iris.uniroma1.it:11573/1768220","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11573/1768220","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196107","display_name":"IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3642069","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3642069","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":74,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2036422911","https://openalex.org/W2063324632","https://openalex.org/W2421649827","https://openalex.org/W2546888793","https://openalex.org/W2547814395","https://openalex.org/W2548524756","https://openalex.org/W2562172303","https://openalex.org/W2582242043","https://openalex.org/W2623716590","https://openalex.org/W2625286981","https://openalex.org/W2771153279","https://openalex.org/W2776057253","https://openalex.org/W2776322637","https://openalex.org/W2891777836","https://openalex.org/W2892341857","https://openalex.org/W2908876796","https://openalex.org/W2941584439","https://openalex.org/W2944248704","https://openalex.org/W2952122856","https://openalex.org/W2960964942","https://openalex.org/W2963610939","https://openalex.org/W2965379700","https://openalex.org/W2969817719","https://openalex.org/W2985868110","https://openalex.org/W2989597589","https://openalex.org/W3000016953","https://openalex.org/W3014606712","https://openalex.org/W3049001893","https://openalex.org/W3089462680","https://openalex.org/W3089628513","https://openalex.org/W3096966099","https://openalex.org/W3097389899","https://openalex.org/W3120658419","https://openalex.org/W3130500162","https://openalex.org/W3185455546","https://openalex.org/W3191827222","https://openalex.org/W3210997132","https://openalex.org/W3211955483","https://openalex.org/W3212872268","https://openalex.org/W3213632263","https://openalex.org/W4200032314","https://openalex.org/W4213147678","https://openalex.org/W4214484978","https://openalex.org/W4280614975","https://openalex.org/W4293053883","https://openalex.org/W4298864224","https://openalex.org/W4310340119","https://openalex.org/W4311305951","https://openalex.org/W4313855634","https://openalex.org/W4360605114","https://openalex.org/W4385900995","https://openalex.org/W4386278812","https://openalex.org/W4386631054","https://openalex.org/W4387343941","https://openalex.org/W4387829162","https://openalex.org/W4387913077","https://openalex.org/W4388469818","https://openalex.org/W4388757788","https://openalex.org/W4390486019","https://openalex.org/W4391855083","https://openalex.org/W4394596818","https://openalex.org/W4399631587","https://openalex.org/W4399911034","https://openalex.org/W4400449789","https://openalex.org/W4400687588","https://openalex.org/W4400909083","https://openalex.org/W4401432688","https://openalex.org/W4401880425","https://openalex.org/W4402258915","https://openalex.org/W4402261087","https://openalex.org/W4402264718","https://openalex.org/W4402593304","https://openalex.org/W4404887470","https://openalex.org/W6921990963"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0],"survey":[1],"consolidates":[2],"the":[3,6,149,172],"state":[4,108],"of":[5,63,142,151],"art":[7],"in":[8,95,133],"vision-based":[9],"Unmanned":[10],"Aerial":[11],"Vehicle":[12],"(UAV)":[13],"systems":[14],"and":[15,20,29,38,45,50,57,59,68,83,86,114,117,120,148,154,166,169],"introduces":[16],"a":[17],"unifying":[18],"taxonomy":[19],"feature":[21],"matrix":[22],"that":[23],"relate":[24],"platform":[25,65],"form-factors,":[26],"onboard":[27,87],"capabilities,":[28],"payload":[30,74],"characteristics":[31],"to":[32,72,162,170,177],"application":[33],"domains.":[34],"We":[35],"systematically":[36],"review":[37],"classify":[39],"recent":[40],"literature":[41],"across":[42],"agriculture,":[43],"transportation":[44],"logistics,":[46],"infrastructure":[47],"inspection,":[48],"search":[49],"rescue,":[51],"environmental":[52],"monitoring,":[53],"emergency":[54],"response,":[55],"surveying/mapping,":[56],"surveillance,":[58],"analyze":[60],"operational":[61,178],"trade-offs":[62],"prominent":[64],"classes\u2014multi-rotor,":[66],"fixed-wing,":[67],"hybrid":[69],"UAVs\u2014with":[70],"respect":[71],"endurance,":[73,130],"capacity,":[75],"maneuverability,":[76],"sensing":[77],"modalities":[78],"(i.e.,":[79],"Red-Green-Blue":[80],"(RGB)":[81],"cameras":[82],"thermal":[84],"sensors),":[85],"computation.":[88],"Algorithmic":[89],"trends":[90],"are":[91,125],"synthesized,":[92],"highlighting":[93],"advances":[94],"lightweight":[96],"Deep":[97],"Learning":[98],"(DL)":[99],"techniques":[100],"(notably":[101],"Convolutional":[102],"Neural":[103],"Network":[104],"(CNN)-based":[105],"perception),":[106],"robust":[107],"estimation":[109],"via":[110],"Visual-Inertial":[111],"Odometry":[112],"(VIO)":[113],"Simultaneous":[115],"Localization":[116],"Mapping":[118],"(SLAM),":[119],"multisensor":[121],"fusion.":[122],"Recurring":[123],"challenges":[124],"identified,":[126],"including":[127],"limited":[128],"flight":[129],"resilient":[131],"operation":[132],"Global":[134],"Positioning":[135],"System":[136],"(GPS)-denied":[137],"or":[138],"cluttered":[139],"environments,":[140],"scarcity":[141],"domainspecific":[143],"datasets":[144],"for":[145],"vision":[146],"tasks,":[147],"absence":[150],"standardized":[152],"benchmarks":[153],"safety":[155],"frameworks.":[156],"Finally,":[157],"we":[158],"outline":[159],"research":[160],"directions":[161],"promote":[163],"resilient,":[164],"explainable,":[165],"energy-aware":[167],"UAVs":[168],"accelerate":[171],"transition":[173],"from":[174],"experimental":[175],"prototypes":[176],"deployments.":[179]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-01-11T23:08:45.486102","created_date":"2025-12-10T00:00:00"}