{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414908495","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3618868","title":"FairPrompt: Efficient Multi-Objective Prompt Optimization for Fairness Testing in Conversational AI Systems","display_name":"FairPrompt: Efficient Multi-Objective Prompt Optimization for Fairness Testing in Conversational AI Systems","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414908495","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3618868"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3618868","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3618868","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3618868","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119881842","display_name":"Zunaira Shafqat","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201384688","display_name":"National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/003eyb898","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zunaira Shafqat","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computing and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9225-1477","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computing and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5063333232","display_name":"Atif Aftab Ahmed Jilani","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8311-8279"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201384688","display_name":"National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/003eyb898","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Atif Aftab Ahmed Jilani","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computing and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computing and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108249413","display_name":"Nigar Azhar Butt","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7560-1023"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201384688","display_name":"National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/003eyb898","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nigar Azhar Butt","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computing and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7560-1023","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, National University of Computing and Emerging Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201384688"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5049668434","display_name":"Shafiq Ur Rehman","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2677-0108"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I240666556","display_name":"Imam Mohammad ibn Saud Islamic University","ror":"https://ror.org/05gxjyb39","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I240666556"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shafiq Ur Rehman","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2677-0108","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I240666556"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I240666556"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007304996","display_name":"Muhammad Usman Khalid","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1636-3351"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I240666556","display_name":"Imam Mohammad ibn Saud Islamic University","ror":"https://ror.org/05gxjyb39","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I240666556"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhammad Usman Khalid","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1636-3351","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I240666556"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I240666556"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5091780221","display_name":"Volker Gruhn","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I62318514","display_name":"University of Duisburg-Essen","ror":"https://ror.org/04mz5ra38","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I62318514"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Volker Gruhn","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Software Engineering, University of Duisburg–Essen, Essen, Germany","Department of Software Engineering, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, University of Duisburg–Essen, Essen, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I62318514"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I62318514"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":1.7588,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.88874181,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"177615","last_page":"177630"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9890000224113464,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.9603000283241272,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sorting","display_name":"Sorting","score":0.7103999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.5509999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/preference","display_name":"Preference","score":0.4415000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sampling-bias","display_name":"Sampling bias","score":0.4311000108718872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reduction","display_name":"Reduction (mathematics)","score":0.39559999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cosine-similarity","display_name":"Cosine similarity","score":0.390500009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.3727000057697296}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8177000284194946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111696304","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2303697","display_name":"Sorting","level":2,"score":0.7103999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.5509999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4765999913215637},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4424000084400177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781249084","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q908656","display_name":"Preference","level":2,"score":0.4415000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75917345","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2725298","display_name":"Sampling bias","level":3,"score":0.4311000108718872},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111335779","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3454686","display_name":"Reduction (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.39559999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780762811","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1784941","display_name":"Cosine similarity","level":3,"score":0.390500009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.3727000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189950617","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q937228","display_name":"Property (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.3481000065803528},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781316041","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1230584","display_name":"Diversity (politics)","level":2,"score":0.3416999876499176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8880873","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187787","display_name":"Genetic algorithm","level":2,"score":0.3402999937534332},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C140779682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210868","display_name":"Sampling (signal processing)","level":3,"score":0.325300008058548},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C198531522","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q485146","display_name":"Sample (material)","level":2,"score":0.31049999594688416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.29269999265670776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158154518","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310970","display_name":"Relevance (law)","level":2,"score":0.2766000032424927},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137836250","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q984063","display_name":"Optimization problem","level":2,"score":0.26409998536109924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C194959371","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17056235","display_name":"Inequity aversion","level":3,"score":0.25270000100135803}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3618868","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3618868","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:bibliographie.ub.uni-due.de:ubo_mods_00236368","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3618868","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407055102","display_name":"Universit\u00e4tsbibliographie, Universit\u00e4t Duisburg-Essen","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Artikel/Aufsatz"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:dda1a1d31f9f491d9637ba16b3aa2c53","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/dda1a1d31f9f491d9637ba16b3aa2c53","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 13, Pp 177615-177630 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3618868","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3618868","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3642461647","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"IMSIU-DDRSP2504","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335726","funder_display_name":"Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335726","display_name":"Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":36,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1526710119","https://openalex.org/W2107729695","https://openalex.org/W2126105956","https://openalex.org/W2730550703","https://openalex.org/W2802105481","https://openalex.org/W2809701591","https://openalex.org/W2967682612","https://openalex.org/W2972668795","https://openalex.org/W3035671939","https://openalex.org/W3040711047","https://openalex.org/W3092541244","https://openalex.org/W3100355408","https://openalex.org/W3101206394","https://openalex.org/W3128630643","https://openalex.org/W3132110306","https://openalex.org/W3165292502","https://openalex.org/W3176271680","https://openalex.org/W3181414820","https://openalex.org/W3194113117","https://openalex.org/W3194896290","https://openalex.org/W4205221547","https://openalex.org/W4220760463","https://openalex.org/W4285301689","https://openalex.org/W4308731725","https://openalex.org/W4363677096","https://openalex.org/W4377007934","https://openalex.org/W4384304645","https://openalex.org/W4385574250","https://openalex.org/W4388483261","https://openalex.org/W4389209181","https://openalex.org/W4391184050","https://openalex.org/W4391341739","https://openalex.org/W4392645489","https://openalex.org/W4399528455","https://openalex.org/W4400969772","https://openalex.org/W4411120796"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"As":[0],"conversational":[1,168,233],"AI":[2,169,248],"systems":[3],"become":[4,16],"integral":[5],"to":[6,38,66,143,195],"real-world":[7],"applications,":[8],"ensuring":[9],"fairness":[10,22,152,230],"and":[11,36,90,123,134,149,157,173,178,208,239,245],"minimizing":[12],"social":[13,115,213],"bias":[14,75,87,112,138,205],"has":[15],"a":[17,51,69,97,111,187,225,236],"critical":[18],"research":[19],"challenge.":[20],"Existing":[21],"testing":[23,231],"approaches":[24],"often":[25],"rely":[26],"on":[27,165],"exhaustive":[28],"or":[29],"template-based":[30],"prompt":[31,54,91,99,189],"generation,":[32],"which":[33],"limits":[34],"scalability":[35],"struggles":[37],"capture":[39],"the":[40,59],"diversity":[41],"of":[42,72],"natural":[43],"language.":[44],"In":[45],"this":[46],"paper,":[47],"we":[48],"present":[49],"FairPrompt,":[50],"novel":[52],"multi-objective":[53],"optimization":[55],"framework":[56,103,228],"that":[57],"leverages":[58],"Non-dominated":[60],"Sorting":[61],"Genetic":[62],"Algorithm":[63],"II":[64],"(NSGA-II)":[65],"efficiently":[67],"identify":[68],"high-quality":[70],"subset":[71],"prompts":[73,125],"for":[74,83,137,229],"elicitation.":[76],"Unlike":[77],"prior":[78],"methods,":[79],"FairPrompt":[80,164,192,223],"explicitly":[81],"optimizes":[82],"three":[84],"objectives\u2014semantic":[85],"diversity,":[86],"detection":[88,206],"rate,":[89],"uniqueness":[92],"with":[93,186],"balanced":[94],"demographic":[95,161],"coverage\u2014within":[96],"large":[98],"search":[100],"space.":[101],"The":[102],"operates":[104],"in":[105,198,232],"five":[106],"systematic":[107],"stages:":[108],"(1)":[109],"constructing":[110],"dataset":[113],"from":[114],"group\u2013bias":[116],"property":[117],"tuples,":[118],"(2)":[119],"generating":[120],"yes/no,":[121],"wh-,":[122],"choice-based":[124],"using":[126],"NLP":[127],"techniques,":[128],"(3)":[129],"applying":[130],"n-gram,":[131],"cosine":[132],"similarity,":[133],"embedding-based":[135],"methods":[136],"detection,":[139],"(4)":[140],"employing":[141],"NSGA-II":[142],"select":[144],"an":[145],"optimized":[146],"\u201cPrompt":[147],"Set,\u201d":[148],"(5)":[150],"measuring":[151],"via":[153],"Bias":[154],"Detection":[155],"Rate":[156,159],"Preference":[158],"across":[160,211],"categories.We":[162],"evaluate":[163],"two":[166],"state-of-the-art":[167],"systems\u2014BlenderBot":[170],"(400M":[171],"parameters)":[172],"GPT-3.5":[174],"Turbo\u2014using":[175],"Random":[176],"Sampling":[177],"BiasAsker":[179],"as":[180,224],"baselines.":[181],"Across":[182],"30":[183],"experimental":[184],"runs":[185],"30%":[188],"sample":[190],"size,":[191],"demonstrates":[193],"up":[194],"50%":[196],"reduction":[197],"computational":[199],"cost":[200],"while":[201],"achieving":[202],"significantly":[203],"higher":[204],"rates":[207],"broader":[209],"coverage":[210],"multiple":[212],"dimensions":[214],"(e.g.,":[215],"gender,":[216],"race,":[217],"body,":[218],"ability).":[219],"These":[220],"results":[221],"establish":[222],"scalable,":[226],"model-agnostic":[227],"AI,":[234],"offering":[235],"more":[237],"efficient":[238],"comprehensive":[240],"pathway":[241],"toward":[242],"building":[243],"robust":[244],"socially":[246],"responsible":[247],"systems.":[249]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}