{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4413861897","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3603580","title":"A Large Language Model-Supported Threat Modeling Framework for Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems","display_name":"A Large Language Model-Supported Threat Modeling Framework for Transportation Cyber-Physical Systems","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4413861897","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3603580"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3603580","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3603580","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3603580","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090505323","display_name":"M Sabbir Salek","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7326-3694"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8078737","display_name":"Clemson University","ror":"https://ror.org/037s24f05","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"M Sabbir Salek","raw_affiliation_strings":["Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7326-3694","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5088109829","display_name":"Mashrur Chowdhury","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3275-6983"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8078737","display_name":"Clemson University","ror":"https://ror.org/037s24f05","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mashrur Chowdhury","raw_affiliation_strings":["Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3275-6983","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009607134","display_name":"Muhaimin Bin Munir","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3884-3818"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhaimin Bin Munir","raw_affiliation_strings":["Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3884-3818","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103254012","display_name":"Yuchen Cai","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-1423-6399"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuchen Cai","raw_affiliation_strings":["Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-1423-6399","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Mohammad Imtiaz Hasan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9799-6773"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8078737","display_name":"Clemson University","ror":"https://ror.org/037s24f05","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammad Imtiaz Hasan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-9799-6773","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5056234324","display_name":"Jean Michel Tine","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1121-7323"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8078737","display_name":"Clemson University","ror":"https://ror.org/037s24f05","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jean-Michel Tine","raw_affiliation_strings":["Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1121-7323","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005002693","display_name":"Latifur Khan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9300-1576"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I162577319","display_name":"The University of Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/049emcs32","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Latifur Khan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9300-1576","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I162577319"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5047113835","display_name":"Mizanur Rahman","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1128-753X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17301866","display_name":"University of Alabama","ror":"https://ror.org/03xrrjk67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17301866"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mizanur Rahman","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1128-753X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17301866"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":8,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5090505323"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8078737"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":2.78,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.922305,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"163046","last_page":"163070"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10734","display_name":"Information and Cyber Security","score":0.9890999794006348,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10734","display_name":"Information and Cyber Security","score":0.9890999794006348,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cyber-physical-system","display_name":"Cyber-physical system","score":0.7103283405303955},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7023301124572754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/modeling-language","display_name":"Modeling language","score":0.4694993495941162},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.46703076362609863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/unified-modeling-language","display_name":"Unified Modeling Language","score":0.4180395007133484},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.1956084966659546}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179768478","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1120057","display_name":"Cyber-physical system","level":2,"score":0.7103283405303955},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7023301124572754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179603123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1941921","display_name":"Modeling language","level":3,"score":0.4694993495941162},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.46703076362609863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145644426","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169411","display_name":"Unified Modeling Language","level":3,"score":0.4180395007133484},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.1956084966659546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777904410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397","display_name":"Software","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3603580","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3603580","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:a7559aab69524de18802915a53584056","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/a7559aab69524de18802915a53584056","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 13, Pp 163046-163070 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3603580","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3603580","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2363773515","https://openalex.org/W2349592260","https://openalex.org/W2170113317","https://openalex.org/W1966557326","https://openalex.org/W2394049954","https://openalex.org/W2555062806","https://openalex.org/W2158621500","https://openalex.org/W2349724551","https://openalex.org/W2351492568","https://openalex.org/W2108384596"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Increased":[0],"reliance":[1],"on":[2,129],"automation":[3],"and":[4,25,38,72,78,109,211],"connectivity":[5],"exposes":[6],"transportation":[7,53,82,132,169,227],"cyber-physical":[8],"systems":[9],"(CPS)":[10],"to":[11,69,149,187],"many":[12],"cyber":[13],"vulnerabilities.":[14],"Existing":[15],"threat":[16,49,151,229],"modeling":[17,50],"frameworks":[18],"are":[19,248],"often":[20],"narrow":[21],"in":[22,195,218,226],"scope,":[23],"labor-intensive,":[24],"require":[26],"substantial":[27],"cybersecurity":[28,58,97,178,239],"expertise.":[29],"To":[30,241],"this":[31],"end,":[32],"we":[33],"introduce":[34],"the":[35,138,161,183,219,233],"Transportation":[36],"Cybersecurity":[37],"Resiliency":[39],"Threat":[40],"Modeling":[41],"Framework":[42],"(TraCR-TMF),":[43],"a":[44,91,111,192,196],"large":[45],"language":[46],"model":[47],"(LLM)-based":[48],"framework":[51,154,162,184],"for":[52,81,125,167,191,214,235],"CPS":[54,133,170,228],"that":[55],"requires":[56],"limited":[57],"expert":[59,98,107,117],"intervention.":[60,118],"TraCR-TMF":[61,119,200],"identifies":[62],"threats,":[63],"potential":[64],"attack":[65,76,122,165,189],"techniques":[66,166],"(i.e.,":[67],"methods":[68],"exploit":[70],"vulnerabilities),":[71],"relevant":[73,164],"countermeasures":[74],"(e.g.,":[75],"detection":[77],"mitigation":[79],"strategies)":[80],"CPS.":[83],"Three":[84],"LLM-based":[85,121],"approaches":[86],"support":[87],"these":[88],"identifications:":[89],"(i)":[90],"retrieval-augmented":[92],"generation":[93],"approach":[94,104,114],"requiring":[95],"no":[96],"intervention,":[99,108],"(ii)":[100],"an":[101,251],"in-context":[102],"learning":[103],"with":[105,115],"low":[106],"(iii)":[110],"supervised":[112],"fine-tuning":[113],"moderate":[116],"offers":[120],"path":[123],"identification":[124],"critical":[126],"assets":[127],"based":[128],"vulnerabilities":[130,148],"across":[131],"entities.":[134],"Additionally,":[135],"it":[136],"incorporates":[137],"Common":[139],"Vulnerability":[140],"Scoring":[141],"System":[142],"(CVSS)":[143],"scores":[144],"of":[145,173,207,238],"known":[146],"exploited":[147],"prioritize":[150],"mitigations.":[152],"The":[153],"was":[155,185],"evaluated":[156],"through":[157],"two":[158],"cases.":[159],"First,":[160],"identified":[163],"various":[168],"applications,":[171],"73%":[172],"which":[174],"were":[175],"validated":[176],"by":[177],"experts":[179],"as":[180,216],"correct.":[181],"Second,":[182],"used":[186],"identify":[188],"paths":[190],"target":[193],"asset":[194],"real-world":[197,243],"cyberattack":[198],"incident.":[199,220],"successfully":[201],"predicted":[202],"exploitations,":[203],"like":[204],"lateral":[205],"movement":[206],"adversaries,":[208],"data":[209,212],"exfiltration,":[210],"encryption":[213],"ransomware,":[215],"reported":[217],"These":[221],"findings":[222],"show":[223],"TraCR-TMF\u2019s":[224],"efficacy":[225],"modeling,":[230],"while":[231],"reducing":[232],"need":[234],"extensive":[236],"involvement":[237],"experts.":[240],"facilitate":[242],"adoptions,":[244],"all":[245],"our":[246],"codes":[247],"shared":[249],"via":[250],"open-source":[252],"repository.":[253]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
