{"id":"https://openalex.org/W6959565803","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3590437","title":"Invisible Manipulation: Deep Reinforcement Learning-Enhanced Stealthy Attacks on Battery Energy Management Systems","display_name":"Invisible Manipulation: Deep Reinforcement Learning-Enhanced Stealthy Attacks on Battery Energy Management Systems","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W6959565803","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3590437"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3590437","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3590437","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3590437","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Qi Xiao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3365-2392"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I137902535","display_name":"North Carolina State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tj63d06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Qi Xiao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Lidong Song","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I137902535","display_name":"North Carolina State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tj63d06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lidong Song","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Jong Ha Woo","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I137902535","display_name":"North Carolina State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tj63d06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jong Ha Woo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Rongxing Hu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I137902535","display_name":"North Carolina State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tj63d06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rongxing Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Bei Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3709-3099"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I137902535","display_name":"North Carolina State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tj63d06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Bei Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Kai Ye","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5955-805X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I137902535","display_name":"North Carolina State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tj63d06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kai Ye","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Ning Lu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0125-0653"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I137902535","display_name":"North Carolina State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tj63d06","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ning Lu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":7,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I137902535"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":3.5097,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.93447833,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":96},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"131509","last_page":"131524"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":true,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10733","display_name":"Wheat and Barley Genetics and Pathology","score":0.5626999735832214,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10733","display_name":"Wheat and Barley Genetics and Pathology","score":0.5626999735832214,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10012","display_name":"Genetic diversity and population structure","score":0.061799999326467514,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1311","display_name":"Genetics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/13","display_name":"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10434","display_name":"Chromosomal and Genetic Variations","score":0.04619999974966049,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1110","display_name":"Plant Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/testbed","display_name":"Testbed","score":0.8709999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/microgrid","display_name":"Microgrid","score":0.7131999731063843},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.7038000226020813},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/energy-management","display_name":"Energy management","score":0.5476999878883362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/battery","display_name":"Battery (electricity)","score":0.5248000025749207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transient","display_name":"Transient (computer programming)","score":0.4284000098705292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/energy-management-system","display_name":"Energy management system","score":0.4124999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/energy","display_name":"Energy (signal processing)","score":0.3779999911785126}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31395832","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1318674","display_name":"Testbed","level":2,"score":0.8709999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8101999759674072},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776784348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5762595","display_name":"Microgrid","level":3,"score":0.7131999731063843},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.7038000226020813},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C7817414","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1779504","display_name":"Energy management","level":3,"score":0.5476999878883362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555008776","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q267298","display_name":"Battery (electricity)","level":3,"score":0.5248000025749207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.45329999923706055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780799671","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17087362","display_name":"Transient (computer programming)","level":2,"score":0.4284000098705292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781260460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6139999","display_name":"Energy management system","level":4,"score":0.4124999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186370098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q442787","display_name":"Energy (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.3779999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149635348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193040","display_name":"Embedded system","level":1,"score":0.3578000068664551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.33469998836517334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10558101","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q689855","display_name":"Smart grid","level":2,"score":0.33410000801086426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C200601418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2193887","display_name":"Reliability engineering","level":1,"score":0.3206999897956848},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36503486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11235244","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","level":2,"score":0.31709998846054077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.305400013923645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149810388","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5374873","display_name":"Emulation","level":2,"score":0.2935999929904938},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.28780001401901245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188573790","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12705","display_name":"Renewable energy","level":2,"score":0.2872999906539917},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.27070000767707825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89227174","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2388981","display_name":"Electric power system","level":3,"score":0.26489999890327454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.25949999690055847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44154836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45045","display_name":"Simulation","level":1,"score":0.2547000050544739}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3590437","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3590437","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:68fbb0dccc8040f7a3c51c06abdf3a29","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/68fbb0dccc8040f7a3c51c06abdf3a29","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 13, Pp 131509-131524 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3590437","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3590437","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8496529459953308,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/7","display_name":"Affordable and clean energy"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":46,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2038651258","https://openalex.org/W2103480424","https://openalex.org/W2135668466","https://openalex.org/W2230317998","https://openalex.org/W2331619935","https://openalex.org/W2525022545","https://openalex.org/W2543877364","https://openalex.org/W2549840287","https://openalex.org/W2552129899","https://openalex.org/W2604231120","https://openalex.org/W2889428202","https://openalex.org/W2899718782","https://openalex.org/W2904246096","https://openalex.org/W2906650288","https://openalex.org/W2914608166","https://openalex.org/W2955325445","https://openalex.org/W2966740848","https://openalex.org/W2984195658","https://openalex.org/W2994779380","https://openalex.org/W2997553733","https://openalex.org/W2998233014","https://openalex.org/W3028265198","https://openalex.org/W3096437186","https://openalex.org/W3112557775","https://openalex.org/W3173870401","https://openalex.org/W3184227953","https://openalex.org/W3193629284","https://openalex.org/W3194527527","https://openalex.org/W3201981149","https://openalex.org/W3202039704","https://openalex.org/W3205979236","https://openalex.org/W3210102662","https://openalex.org/W4205451436","https://openalex.org/W4214484041","https://openalex.org/W4286572080","https://openalex.org/W4312359213","https://openalex.org/W4312904081","https://openalex.org/W4317796664","https://openalex.org/W4361852699","https://openalex.org/W4389288673","https://openalex.org/W4395470952","https://openalex.org/W4402744012","https://openalex.org/W4403127712","https://openalex.org/W4403322591","https://openalex.org/W6847195205","https://openalex.org/W6877647470"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0,108,211],"paper":[1],"introduces":[2],"an":[3,132],"innovative":[4],"cyber-attack":[5],"scheme,":[6],"\u201cinvisible":[7],"manipulation,\u201d":[8],"utilizing":[9,137],"timed-stealthy":[10],"false":[11,209],"data":[12,96,140],"injection":[13],"attacks":[14,42],"(Timed-SFDIAs).":[15],"By":[16],"subtly":[17],"altering":[18],"critical":[19,67,239],"measurements":[20,84],"ahead":[21],"of":[22,194,223,241],"a":[23,33,52,142,166],"target":[24],"period,":[25],"the":[26,57,110,114,117,160,188,198,207,221,224,238],"attacker":[27],"covertly":[28],"steers":[29],"system":[30,177],"operations":[31],"toward":[32],"specific":[34],"failure":[35],"state,":[36],"evading":[37,228],"detection":[38,97,229],"while":[39],"enabling":[40],"repeated":[41],"over":[43],"time.":[44],"Using":[45],"Battery":[46,62],"Energy":[47,63],"Management":[48],"System":[49],"(BEMS)":[50],"as":[51,271],"case":[53],"study,":[54],"we":[55,125],"demonstrate":[56],"scheme\u2019s":[58],"effectiveness":[59,222],"in":[60,159,183,227],"manipulating":[61],"Storage":[64],"Systems":[65],"(BESS),":[66],"for":[68,252],"grids":[69],"with":[70,156,206],"high":[71],"renewable":[72],"penetration.":[73],"Our":[74],"method":[75],"employs":[76],"deep":[77],"reinforcement":[78],"learning":[79,258],"(DRL)":[80],"to":[81,112,269],"generate":[82],"synthetic":[83],"(e.g.,":[85],"battery":[86],"voltage,":[87],"current)":[88],"that":[89],"mimic":[90],"real":[91,150],"data,":[92],"bypassing":[93],"residual-based":[94],"bad":[95],"(BDD)":[98],"and":[99,152,179,215,230,254,264,275],"misleading":[100],"Extended":[101],"Kalman-filter":[102],"(EKF)":[103],"based":[104,244],"State-of-Charge":[105],"(SoC)":[106],"estimations.":[107],"allows":[109,191],"BEMS":[111],"operate":[113],"BESS":[115,157],"per":[116],"attacker\u2019s":[118],"objectives.":[119],"To":[120],"minimize":[121],"real-time":[122,184,192,245],"computational":[123],"demands,":[124],"transform":[126],"this":[127],"online":[128],"optimization":[129],"problem":[130],"into":[131],"offline":[133],"DRL":[134,213],"training":[135,214,253],"problem,":[136],"high-fidelity":[138],"simulation":[139,246],"from":[141],"digital":[143],"twin-based":[144],"microgrid":[145,195],"testbed.":[146],"The":[147],"testbed":[148,190],"incorporates":[149],"load":[151],"solar":[153],"generation":[154],"profiles":[155],"models":[158],"electromagnetic":[161],"transient":[162],"(EMT)":[163],"domain":[164],"at":[165],"100-<inline-formula":[167],"xmlns:mml=\"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML\"":[168],"xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\">":[169],"<tex-math":[170],"notation=\"LaTeX\">$\\mu":[171],"$":[172],"</tex-math></inline-formula>s":[173],"resolution,":[174],"capturing":[175],"rapid":[176],"dynamics":[178],"ensuring":[180],"robust":[181],"performance":[182],"scenarios.":[185],"Testing":[186],"on":[187],"same":[189],"evaluation":[193],"responses,":[196],"where":[197],"BEMS,":[199],"EKF-based":[200],"SoC":[201],"estimation":[202],"algorithms":[203],"interact":[204],"dynamically":[205],"injected":[208],"measurements.":[210],"unique":[212],"testing":[216],"setup":[217],"not":[218],"only":[219],"showcases":[220],"Timed-SFDIA":[225],"algorithm":[226],"achieving":[231],"diverse":[232],"attack":[233],"objectives":[234],"but":[235],"also":[236],"underscores":[237],"role":[240],"high-fidelity,":[242],"digital-twin":[243],"testbeds.":[247],"Such":[248],"testbeds":[249],"are":[250,267],"invaluable":[251],"validating":[255],"data-driven":[256],"machine":[257],"algorithms,":[259],"especially":[260],"when":[261],"field":[262],"tests":[263],"real-world":[265],"validation":[266],"challenging":[268],"conduct,":[270],"they":[272],"ensure":[273],"robustness":[274],"adaptability":[276],"under":[277],"realistic":[278],"operational":[279],"conditions.":[280]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-03-27T05:58:40.876381","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}