{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4412404226","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3588688","title":"A Review of Distributed Ledger Technologies for Satellite Operations","display_name":"A Review of Distributed Ledger Technologies for Satellite Operations","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4412404226","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3588688"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3588688","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3588688","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3588688","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5118979643","display_name":"Beth Probert","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Beth Probert","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K","Department of Electric and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6042-2018","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electric and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5069854161","display_name":"Ruaridh Clark","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4601-2085"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ruaridh A. Clark","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K","Department of Electric and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4601-2085","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electric and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5023894377","display_name":"Erik Blasch","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6894-6108"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210099573","display_name":"United States Air Force Office of Scientific Research","ror":"https://ror.org/011e9bt93","country_code":"US","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1280414376","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I4210099573","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I4389425425"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Erik Blasch","raw_affiliation_strings":["Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR), Arlington, VA, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6894-6108","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR), Arlington, VA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210099573"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062321958","display_name":"Malcolm Macdonald","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4499-4281"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","display_name":"University of Strathclyde","ror":"https://ror.org/00n3w3b69","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Malcolm Macdonald","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K","Department of Electric and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4499-4281","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electric and Electrical Engineering, Applied Space Technology Laboratory, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":6.3055,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":9,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.96635428,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"123230","last_page":"123258"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10772","display_name":"Distributed systems and fault tolerance","score":0.9822999835014343,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10772","display_name":"Distributed systems and fault tolerance","score":0.9822999835014343,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10933","display_name":"Real-Time Systems Scheduling","score":0.954200029373169,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1708","display_name":"Hardware and Architecture"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10715","display_name":"Distributed and Parallel Computing Systems","score":0.9519000053405762,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distributed-ledger","display_name":"Distributed ledger","score":0.7367307543754578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6828641891479492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/satellite","display_name":"Satellite","score":0.4357331693172455},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain","display_name":"Blockchain","score":0.21770471334457397},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.21596795320510864},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.10046079754829407},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aerospace-engineering","display_name":"Aerospace engineering","score":0.05966925621032715}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777541363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25110971","display_name":"Distributed ledger","level":3,"score":0.7367307543754578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6828641891479492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19269812","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26540","display_name":"Satellite","level":2,"score":0.4357331693172455},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.21770471334457397},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.21596795320510864},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.10046079754829407},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146978453","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3798668","display_name":"Aerospace engineering","level":1,"score":0.05966925621032715}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3588688","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3588688","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:strathprints.strath.ac.uk:93464","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/view/author/1571461.html>","pdf_url":"https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/93464/7/Probert-etal-IEEE-Access-2025-A-review-of-distributed-ledger-technologies-for-satellite-operations.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402226","display_name":"Strathprints: The University of Strathclyde institutional repository (University of Strathclyde)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I181647926","host_organization_name":"University of Strathclyde","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I181647926"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:5491db45f9a54203b6154e708853dd25","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/5491db45f9a54203b6154e708853dd25","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 13, Pp 123230-123258 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3588688","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3588688","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2095465226","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FA8655-22-1-7010","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338279","funder_display_name":"Air Force Office of Scientific Research"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3131987257","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FA8655-22\u20131-7033","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338279","funder_display_name":"Air Force Office of Scientific Research"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G427629562","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"FA8655-22?1-7033","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338279","funder_display_name":"Air Force Office of Scientific Research"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338279","display_name":"Air Force Office of Scientific Research","ror":"https://ror.org/011e9bt93"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":141,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W55380330","https://openalex.org/W59700371","https://openalex.org/W257431520","https://openalex.org/W1969344535","https://openalex.org/W2124100711","https://openalex.org/W2144232511","https://openalex.org/W2166602595","https://openalex.org/W2345284329","https://openalex.org/W2444080328","https://openalex.org/W2536325433","https://openalex.org/W2739845435","https://openalex.org/W2742421921","https://openalex.org/W2751179194","https://openalex.org/W2769073236","https://openalex.org/W2775178102","https://openalex.org/W2788634907","https://openalex.org/W2799366331","https://openalex.org/W2897842237","https://openalex.org/W2899124919","https://openalex.org/W2899327537","https://openalex.org/W2899880612","https://openalex.org/W2900117741","https://openalex.org/W2901598045","https://openalex.org/W2903986744","https://openalex.org/W2904351506","https://openalex.org/W2907699592","https://openalex.org/W2926987861","https://openalex.org/W2934973610","https://openalex.org/W2945969611","https://openalex.org/W2949663139","https://openalex.org/W2953480947","https://openalex.org/W2965521698","https://openalex.org/W2967244362","https://openalex.org/W2967604605","https://openalex.org/W2975575824","https://openalex.org/W2982365671","https://openalex.org/W2988134091","https://openalex.org/W2988339161","https://openalex.org/W2996885877","https://openalex.org/W2998011160","https://openalex.org/W3000226457","https://openalex.org/W3000735437","https://openalex.org/W3000833961","https://openalex.org/W3001021274","https://openalex.org/W3013928723","https://openalex.org/W3016402324","https://openalex.org/W3021100338","https://openalex.org/W3021274475","https://openalex.org/W3021455140","https://openalex.org/W3040387953","https://openalex.org/W3041171149","https://openalex.org/W3046191230","https://openalex.org/W3049739354","https://openalex.org/W3081239806","https://openalex.org/W3082829789","https://openalex.org/W3084853599","https://openalex.org/W3091852275","https://openalex.org/W3094912835","https://openalex.org/W3113361091","https://openalex.org/W3116406931","https://openalex.org/W3120848980","https://openalex.org/W3128466372","https://openalex.org/W3128807435","https://openalex.org/W3131124683","https://openalex.org/W3133686735","https://openalex.org/W3136753322","https://openalex.org/W3153670037","https://openalex.org/W3169733430","https://openalex.org/W3183984289","https://openalex.org/W3184476106","https://openalex.org/W3187485442","https://openalex.org/W3198919710","https://openalex.org/W3200204638","https://openalex.org/W3202728596","https://openalex.org/W3214769368","https://openalex.org/W3216767138","https://openalex.org/W4200148216","https://openalex.org/W4210968164","https://openalex.org/W4220749588","https://openalex.org/W4221141539","https://openalex.org/W4223932426","https://openalex.org/W4225897665","https://openalex.org/W4237628252","https://openalex.org/W4251994886","https://openalex.org/W4285169494","https://openalex.org/W4285227285","https://openalex.org/W4285256275","https://openalex.org/W4285277227","https://openalex.org/W4288045835","https://openalex.org/W4290467239","https://openalex.org/W4292394993","https://openalex.org/W4294969109","https://openalex.org/W4308213841","https://openalex.org/W4308413541","https://openalex.org/W4312746057","https://openalex.org/W4312952006","https://openalex.org/W4313492199","https://openalex.org/W4313826623","https://openalex.org/W4313880567","https://openalex.org/W4316192617","https://openalex.org/W4318616700","https://openalex.org/W4320024296","https://openalex.org/W4367591541","https://openalex.org/W4376606597","https://openalex.org/W4382998579","https://openalex.org/W4384916936","https://openalex.org/W4385894332","https://openalex.org/W4386541372","https://openalex.org/W4387256764","https://openalex.org/W4389575847","https://openalex.org/W4389665080","https://openalex.org/W4390189359","https://openalex.org/W4390343656","https://openalex.org/W4391766366","https://openalex.org/W4392902367","https://openalex.org/W4395449175","https://openalex.org/W4396593594","https://openalex.org/W4398150456","https://openalex.org/W4399311127","https://openalex.org/W4399341400","https://openalex.org/W4400542556","https://openalex.org/W4400768254","https://openalex.org/W4401442713","https://openalex.org/W4401459825","https://openalex.org/W4401719045","https://openalex.org/W4402487429","https://openalex.org/W4402542451","https://openalex.org/W4402965451","https://openalex.org/W4406737159","https://openalex.org/W4408705776","https://openalex.org/W6638711193","https://openalex.org/W6678832241","https://openalex.org/W6725760337","https://openalex.org/W6763116665","https://openalex.org/W6767087441","https://openalex.org/W6772252573","https://openalex.org/W6846123624","https://openalex.org/W6864400955","https://openalex.org/W6876686739","https://openalex.org/W6891773773","https://openalex.org/W6946363980"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391375266","https://openalex.org/W2899084033","https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2756924431","https://openalex.org/W4387932593","https://openalex.org/W2979776202","https://openalex.org/W3038176961","https://openalex.org/W4238687111","https://openalex.org/W2971345634","https://openalex.org/W4252762361"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"As":[0],"the":[1,22,28,54,63,99,148,154,161,176],"density":[2],"of":[3,14,27,56,65,83,85,94,101,121,143,156,178],"objects":[4],"in":[5,92,129,160,184],"Low":[6],"Earth":[7],"Orbit":[8],"continues":[9],"to":[10,20,42,70,175],"increase,":[11],"greater":[12],"levels":[13],"coordination":[15,76,109],"among":[16,77],"satellites":[17],"are":[18,110,125,147,164],"needed":[19],"ensure":[21],"continued":[23],"operation":[24],"and":[25,40,47,52,74,98,140,171,181],"sustainability":[26],"space":[29,33,162],"environment.":[30],"Existing":[31],"centralised":[32],"governance":[34],"frameworks":[35],"suffer":[36],"from":[37],"delays,":[38],"ambiguity,":[39],"vulnerability":[41],"manipulation,":[43],"introducing":[44],"further":[45],"complexity":[46],"risk":[48],"into":[49],"satellite":[50,108],"operations,":[51],"hindering":[53],"development":[55],"new":[57],"space-based":[58,130],"services.":[59],"This":[60],"review":[61],"examines":[62],"feasibility":[64],"leveraging":[66],"Distributed":[67,157],"Ledger":[68,158],"Technologies":[69,159],"facilitate":[71],"secure,":[72],"decentralised,":[73],"autonomous":[75],"satellites,":[78],"conceptualised":[79],"as":[80],"an":[81],"extension":[82],"Internet":[84,100],"Things":[86],"networks.":[87,187],"By":[88],"examining":[89],"analogous":[90],"applications":[91],"swarms":[93],"Uncrewed":[95],"Aerial":[96],"Systems,":[97],"Things,":[102],"key":[103],"system":[104],"requirements":[105],"for":[106,127],"decentralised":[107],"defined.":[111],"It":[112],"is":[113],"found":[114],"that":[115],"traditional":[116],"Blockchain":[117,138],"systems":[118],"using":[119],"Proof":[120,142],"Work-based":[122],"consensus":[123,145,183],"mechanisms":[124,146],"impractical":[126],"use":[128],"systems,":[131],"whilst":[132],"Directed":[133],"Acyclic":[134],"Graph":[135],"architectures,":[136,139],"Sharded":[137],"non-deterministic":[141],"Stake":[144],"most":[149],"suitable.":[150],"Critical":[151],"gaps":[152],"preventing":[153],"implementation":[155],"environment":[163],"identified.":[165],"These":[166],"include":[167],"wider":[168],"regulatory":[169],"considerations,":[170],"technical":[172],"obstacles":[173],"relating":[174],"storage":[177],"transactional":[179],"data":[180],"reaching":[182],"time-varying,":[185],"asynchronous":[186]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-07-15T18:14:33.161393","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}