{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4412081682","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3586554","title":"Few-Shot Evaluation of Vision Language Models for Detecting Visual Defects in Autonomous Vehicle Software Requirement Specifications","display_name":"Few-Shot Evaluation of Vision Language Models for Detecting Visual Defects in Autonomous Vehicle Software Requirement Specifications","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4412081682","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3586554"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3586554","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3586554","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3586554","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5118845662","display_name":"Nabil Bukhary","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I199440890","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Nabil Bukhary","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070680691","display_name":"M. Omair Ahmad","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I199440890","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Maaz Ahmad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6297-6978","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5118845663","display_name":"Karim Rashad","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I199440890","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Karim Rashad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3462-9194","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5106807926","display_name":"Samarth Rai","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I199440890","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Samarth Rai","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5002365604","display_name":"Salsabeel Shapsough","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8667-4799"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I199440890","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Salsabeel Shapsough","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8667-4799","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5021823066","display_name":"Yara Kaddoura","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0564-705X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I199440890","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yara Kaddoura","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5063388858","display_name":"Dana Dghaym","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2196-2749"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I199440890","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dana Dghaym","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2196-2749","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5035716630","display_name":"Imran Zualkernan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1048-5633"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I199440890","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96","country_code":"AE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}],"countries":["AE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Imran Zualkernan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1048-5633","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":8,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5118845662"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I199440890"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":8.3399,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.97270488,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"117914","last_page":"117942"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.8043000102043152,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.8043000102043152,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10743","display_name":"Software Testing and Debugging Techniques","score":0.7250999808311462,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12535","display_name":"Machine Learning and Data Classification","score":0.7161999940872192,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8014177083969116},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/shot","display_name":"Shot (pellet)","score":0.6223337650299072},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software","display_name":"Software","score":0.5365723371505737},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.515028715133667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.4871494472026825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human\u2013computer-interaction","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","score":0.3824211657047272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/programming-language","display_name":"Programming language","score":0.20058688521385193}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8014177083969116},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778344882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q278938","display_name":"Shot (pellet)","level":2,"score":0.6223337650299072},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777904410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397","display_name":"Software","level":2,"score":0.5365723371505737},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.515028715133667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4871494472026825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.3824211657047272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.20058688521385193},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178790620","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11351","display_name":"Organic chemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3586554","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3586554","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:603dfccbaaec48fcb4d5618726ab76c6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/603dfccbaaec48fcb4d5618726ab76c6","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 13, Pp 117914-117942 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3586554","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3586554","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321430","display_name":"American University of Sharjah","ror":"https://ror.org/001g2fj96"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":80,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1981576984","https://openalex.org/W2005732451","https://openalex.org/W2014071490","https://openalex.org/W2019981802","https://openalex.org/W2028544887","https://openalex.org/W2035246569","https://openalex.org/W2094876000","https://openalex.org/W2117622256","https://openalex.org/W2121483262","https://openalex.org/W2124796466","https://openalex.org/W2152705278","https://openalex.org/W2162100845","https://openalex.org/W2221549857","https://openalex.org/W2576845151","https://openalex.org/W2620861280","https://openalex.org/W2793576087","https://openalex.org/W2803326121","https://openalex.org/W2888401638","https://openalex.org/W2953303875","https://openalex.org/W2958608663","https://openalex.org/W3004976805","https://openalex.org/W3094502228","https://openalex.org/W3122482990","https://openalex.org/W3162564290","https://openalex.org/W3201946767","https://openalex.org/W4200449942","https://openalex.org/W4205680690","https://openalex.org/W4229018902","https://openalex.org/W4256389669","https://openalex.org/W4284712962","https://openalex.org/W4313192501","https://openalex.org/W4323240350","https://openalex.org/W4362514913","https://openalex.org/W4377086712","https://openalex.org/W4379057607","https://openalex.org/W4384785025","https://openalex.org/W4389164417","https://openalex.org/W4389916500","https://openalex.org/W4392265905","https://openalex.org/W4395690127","https://openalex.org/W4396982312","https://openalex.org/W4398183782","https://openalex.org/W4401720547","https://openalex.org/W4401720893","https://openalex.org/W4401722583","https://openalex.org/W4401845159","https://openalex.org/W4402610351","https://openalex.org/W4402626702","https://openalex.org/W4405893915","https://openalex.org/W4408853784","https://openalex.org/W6633994450","https://openalex.org/W6682631176","https://openalex.org/W6747969169","https://openalex.org/W6750386851","https://openalex.org/W6755207826","https://openalex.org/W6757392165","https://openalex.org/W6760791211","https://openalex.org/W6761205521","https://openalex.org/W6778883912","https://openalex.org/W6790019176","https://openalex.org/W6791353385","https://openalex.org/W6795536189","https://openalex.org/W6796581206","https://openalex.org/W6810595431","https://openalex.org/W6811180148","https://openalex.org/W6856435747","https://openalex.org/W6857822741","https://openalex.org/W6859170151","https://openalex.org/W6859462557","https://openalex.org/W6859614562","https://openalex.org/W6860028411","https://openalex.org/W6860041859","https://openalex.org/W6864124617","https://openalex.org/W6865008850","https://openalex.org/W6868835603","https://openalex.org/W6870249477","https://openalex.org/W6871863691","https://openalex.org/W6872477876","https://openalex.org/W6876408298","https://openalex.org/W6879846945"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2772917594","https://openalex.org/W2036807459","https://openalex.org/W2058170566","https://openalex.org/W2755342338","https://openalex.org/W2166024367","https://openalex.org/W3116076068","https://openalex.org/W2229312674","https://openalex.org/W2951359407","https://openalex.org/W2079911747","https://openalex.org/W1969923398"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Software":[0],"Requirements":[1],"Specifications":[2],"(SRS)":[3],"are":[4,24,39],"crucial":[5],"for":[6,31,74,165],"defining":[7],"system":[8],"functionality,":[9],"constraints,":[10],"and":[11,27,56,100,118,129,168,231],"objectives,":[12],"particularly":[13],"in":[14,77,102,111,131,154,242],"safety-critical":[15],"applications":[16],"like":[17],"autonomous":[18],"vehicles":[19],"(AV).":[20],"Ensuring":[21],"these":[22],"requirements":[23,43,113,211],"precise,":[25],"unambiguous,":[26],"complete":[28],"is":[29],"important":[30],"developing":[32],"reliable":[33],"self-driving":[34],"systems.":[35],"While":[36,174],"traditional":[37,65],"SRS":[38],"predominantly":[40],"text-based,":[41],"AV":[42,112],"pose":[44],"unique":[45],"challenges":[46],"as":[47,54],"they":[48],"often":[49],"include":[50],"visual":[51,78,103,136,243],"elements":[52],"such":[53],"images":[55,106],"diagrams.":[57],"Although":[58],"Large":[59],"Language":[60],"Models":[61,69],"(LLMs)":[62],"have":[63],"enhanced":[64,161,186],"text-based":[66],"requirements,":[67],"Vision-Language":[68],"(VLMs)":[70],"remain":[71],"largely":[72],"unexplored":[73],"evaluating":[75],"defects":[76],"elements.":[79],"This":[80],"paper":[81],"investigates":[82],"the":[83,124,140,145,149,187,194,197,205,210,229,236],"few-shot":[84],"performance":[85,143,164],"of":[86,97,126,135,152,189,204,219],"three":[87],"large-scale":[88],"VLMs":[89],"on":[90],"their":[91,217],"ability":[92,188],"to":[93,192,216,238],"detect":[94],"various":[95],"types":[96,134],"ambiguities,":[98],"inconsistencies,":[99],"incompleteness":[101],"traffic":[104],"scenario":[105],"that":[107,226],"could":[108,207],"be":[109],"used":[110],"specifications.":[114],"Using":[115],"Soft":[116],"prompting":[117,159,176],"Chain-of-Thought":[119],"(CoT)":[120],"prompting,":[121],"we":[122],"evaluated":[123,146],"effectiveness":[125],"GPT-4,":[127],"GEMINI,":[128],"ClaudeAI":[130,169],"detecting":[132,155],"six":[133],"defects.":[137,199],"GPT-4":[138],"achieved":[139],"highest":[141,150],"overall":[142],"among":[144],"models,":[147],"with":[148],"F1-score":[151],"0.63":[153],"Spatial":[156],"Incompleteness.":[157],"CoT":[158,175],"notably":[160],"defect":[162,172,244],"detection":[163,182],"both":[166],"GEMINI":[167],"across":[170],"all":[171,190],"types.":[173],"did":[177],"not":[178],"significantly":[179,185],"improve":[180,239],"GPT-4\u2019s":[181],"capabilities,":[183],"it":[184],"models":[191,206,230],"explain":[193],"reasoning":[195],"behind":[196],"identified":[198],"Despite":[200],"promising":[201],"results,":[202],"none":[203],"fully":[208],"automate":[209],"validation":[212],"process,":[213],"primarily":[214],"due":[215],"lack":[218],"domain-specific":[220],"knowledge.":[221],"Nevertheless,":[222],"our":[223],"findings":[224],"suggest":[225],"fine":[227],"tuning":[228],"structured":[232],"prompt":[233],"design":[234],"offer":[235],"potential":[237],"VLM":[240],"precision":[241],"detection.":[245]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}