{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4411055040","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3577086","title":"Quantum Key Distribution in Multiple Fiber Networks and Its Application in Urban Communications: A Comprehensive Review","display_name":"Quantum Key Distribution in Multiple Fiber Networks and Its Application in Urban Communications: A Comprehensive Review","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4411055040","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3577086"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3577086","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3577086","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"review","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3577086","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5078424510","display_name":"German A. Granados","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2135383","display_name":"Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","ror":"https://ror.org/04qenc566","country_code":"EC","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2135383"]}],"countries":["EC"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"German Granados","raw_affiliation_strings":["Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computación, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Campus Gustavo Galindo, Guayaquil, Ecuador"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0932-9087","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computación, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Campus Gustavo Galindo, Guayaquil, Ecuador","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2135383"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025520380","display_name":"Washington Vel\u00e1squez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3999-9769"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2135383","display_name":"Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","ror":"https://ror.org/04qenc566","country_code":"EC","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2135383"]}],"countries":["EC"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Washington Velasquez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computación, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Campus Gustavo Galindo, Guayaquil, Ecuador"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3999-9769","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computación, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Campus Gustavo Galindo, Guayaquil, Ecuador","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2135383"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5037812485","display_name":"Ricardo Cajo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0371-2439"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2135383","display_name":"Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","ror":"https://ror.org/04qenc566","country_code":"EC","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2135383"]}],"countries":["EC"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ricardo Cajo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computación, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Campus Gustavo Galindo, Guayaquil, Ecuador"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0371-2439","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computación, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Campus Gustavo Galindo, Guayaquil, Ecuador","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2135383"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055734301","display_name":"Mar\u00eda Antonieta Alvarez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4017-2718"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2135383","display_name":"Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","ror":"https://ror.org/04qenc566","country_code":"EC","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2135383"]}],"countries":["EC"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Maria Antonieta-Alvarez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computación, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Campus Gustavo Galindo, Guayaquil, Ecuador"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4017-2718","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Computación, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Campus Gustavo Galindo, Guayaquil, Ecuador","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2135383"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":4.2816,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":8,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94377261,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"100446","last_page":"100461"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10232","display_name":"Optical Network Technologies","score":0.979200005531311,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10232","display_name":"Optical Network Technologies","score":0.979200005531311,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.9714000225067139,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10767","display_name":"Advanced Photonic Communication Systems","score":0.9596999883651733,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6615240573883057},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-key-distribution","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","score":0.6406924724578857},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.6289198994636536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-network","display_name":"Computer network","score":0.4958721101284027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fiber","display_name":"Fiber","score":0.41297075152397156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distributed-computing","display_name":"Distributed computing","score":0.4098709225654602},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications","display_name":"Telecommunications","score":0.3918474316596985},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum","display_name":"Quantum","score":0.2852887511253357},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.2698136568069458},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/materials-science","display_name":"Materials science","score":0.08967223763465881},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.07511159777641296}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6615240573883057},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95466800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1027298","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","level":3,"score":0.6406924724578857},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.6289198994636536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.4958721101284027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C519885992","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161","display_name":"Fiber","level":2,"score":0.41297075152397156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120314980","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180634","display_name":"Distributed computing","level":1,"score":0.4098709225654602},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.3918474316596985},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84114770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46344","display_name":"Quantum","level":2,"score":0.2852887511253357},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.2698136568069458},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192562407","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228736","display_name":"Materials science","level":0,"score":0.08967223763465881},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.07511159777641296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159985019","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181790","display_name":"Composite material","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3577086","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3577086","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:927436f9d8184a9f86ed4312e0805a22","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/927436f9d8184a9f86ed4312e0805a22","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 13, Pp 100446-100461 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3577086","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3577086","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Sustainable cities and communities","score":0.8299999833106995,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/11"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":86,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1613874182","https://openalex.org/W2001527002","https://openalex.org/W2015179126","https://openalex.org/W2047463679","https://openalex.org/W2885398051","https://openalex.org/W2991441573","https://openalex.org/W3012599914","https://openalex.org/W3088527522","https://openalex.org/W3118428022","https://openalex.org/W3126226315","https://openalex.org/W3127373215","https://openalex.org/W3128601544","https://openalex.org/W3128652783","https://openalex.org/W3128947598","https://openalex.org/W3135044051","https://openalex.org/W3157852369","https://openalex.org/W3164960874","https://openalex.org/W3194289915","https://openalex.org/W3197412341","https://openalex.org/W4206598149","https://openalex.org/W4282837933","https://openalex.org/W4283203974","https://openalex.org/W4288052074","https://openalex.org/W4288052217","https://openalex.org/W4289878267","https://openalex.org/W4293704316","https://openalex.org/W4293787224","https://openalex.org/W4294320751","https://openalex.org/W4297095225","https://openalex.org/W4308605894","https://openalex.org/W4309269363","https://openalex.org/W4311034554","https://openalex.org/W4312634035","https://openalex.org/W4312768793","https://openalex.org/W4315629772","https://openalex.org/W4319779305","https://openalex.org/W4321275966","https://openalex.org/W4321488722","https://openalex.org/W4362666059","https://openalex.org/W4366816607","https://openalex.org/W4376130945","https://openalex.org/W4376873391","https://openalex.org/W4377235452","https://openalex.org/W4377984363","https://openalex.org/W4381568796","https://openalex.org/W4381741394","https://openalex.org/W4382281941","https://openalex.org/W4383879098","https://openalex.org/W4385894332","https://openalex.org/W4386302469","https://openalex.org/W4387085784","https://openalex.org/W4387609111","https://openalex.org/W4387877340","https://openalex.org/W4387999364","https://openalex.org/W4388524613","https://openalex.org/W4388972890","https://openalex.org/W4389990376","https://openalex.org/W4390401780","https://openalex.org/W4391020693","https://openalex.org/W4391889608","https://openalex.org/W4391935777","https://openalex.org/W4393146131","https://openalex.org/W4393237550","https://openalex.org/W4393947855","https://openalex.org/W4394712497","https://openalex.org/W4399020139","https://openalex.org/W4399272675","https://openalex.org/W4399416003","https://openalex.org/W4399984625","https://openalex.org/W4400233877","https://openalex.org/W4400850431","https://openalex.org/W4401507023","https://openalex.org/W4401755036","https://openalex.org/W4401808966","https://openalex.org/W4402086997","https://openalex.org/W4402265698","https://openalex.org/W4402521427","https://openalex.org/W4403797879","https://openalex.org/W4404994545","https://openalex.org/W4405699272","https://openalex.org/W4405936219","https://openalex.org/W4406020809","https://openalex.org/W4410206370","https://openalex.org/W6679192490","https://openalex.org/W6810698136","https://openalex.org/W6872952033"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2314556459","https://openalex.org/W4313487304","https://openalex.org/W2736059005","https://openalex.org/W2035131364","https://openalex.org/W2071612327","https://openalex.org/W2039023320","https://openalex.org/W3186155520","https://openalex.org/W2026480283","https://openalex.org/W4293168356","https://openalex.org/W3196822321"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Information":[0],"security":[1],"faces":[2],"unprecedented":[3],"challenges":[4,111],"in":[5,10,32,88,127,151,159],"the":[6,11,17,93,122,135,146],"digital":[7],"age,":[8],"particularly":[9],"face":[12],"of":[13,19,95,137,149],"cyber":[14],"threats":[15],"and":[16,43,52,69,118,140],"emergence":[18],"quantum":[20,50,76,89,105],"computing.":[21],"This":[22,130],"research":[23,109],"examines":[24],"QKD":[25,39,96,150],"as":[26,65,113],"a":[27,47,152],"solution":[28],"for":[29,124,145],"secure":[30,100],"communications":[31],"urban":[33],"fiber":[34],"networks.":[35,129],"The":[36,83,108],"study":[37],"analyzes":[38],"protocols,":[40],"including":[41],"BB84":[42],"Twin-Field":[44],"QKD,":[45],"implementing":[46],"46-node":[48],"metropolitan":[49,128],"network":[51,119],"key":[53,101],"distribution":[54,102],"over":[55],"distances":[56],"greater":[57],"than":[58],"1002":[59],"kilometers.":[60],"Various":[61],"transmission":[62,114],"media,":[63],"such":[64,112],"multicore":[66],"optical":[67],"fibers":[68],"free-space":[70],"communication,":[71],"were":[72],"evaluated,":[73],"demonstrating":[74],"high-capacity":[75],"communication":[77,90],"with":[78],"advanced":[79],"noise":[80],"mitigation":[81],"techniques.":[82],"results":[84],"reveal":[85],"significant":[86],"advances":[87],"security,":[91],"highlighting":[92],"potential":[94],"to":[97,134],"provide":[98],"theoretically":[99],"based":[103],"on":[104,156],"mechanical":[106],"principles.":[107],"addresses":[110],"loss,":[115],"environmental":[116],"disturbances,":[117],"scalability,":[120],"laying":[121],"groundwork":[123],"future":[125],"implementations":[126],"work":[131],"contributes":[132],"significantly":[133],"standardization":[136],"evaluation":[138],"protocols":[139],"metrics,":[141],"which":[142],"is":[143],"crucial":[144],"global":[147],"adoption":[148],"world":[153],"increasingly":[154],"dependent":[155],"cybersecurity,":[157],"especially":[158],"developing":[160],"smart":[161],"cities.":[162]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}