{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4408100271","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3547572","title":"Anomaly-Based Intrusion Detection for IoMT Networks: Design, Implementation, Dataset Generation, and ML Algorithms Evaluation","display_name":"Anomaly-Based Intrusion Detection for IoMT Networks: Design, Implementation, Dataset Generation, and ML Algorithms Evaluation","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4408100271","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3547572"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3547572","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3547572","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3547572","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5016180608","display_name":"Georgios Zachos","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-4605"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210120471","display_name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es","ror":"https://ror.org/02ht4fk33","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210120471"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Georgios Zachos","raw_affiliation_strings":["Instituto de Telecomunicações, Aveiro, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-4605","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Instituto de Telecomunicações, Aveiro, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210120471"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5041504979","display_name":"\u0393\u03b5\u03ce\u03c1\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u039c\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03ac\u03c2","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8074-0417"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210120471","display_name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es","ror":"https://ror.org/02ht4fk33","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210120471"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Georgios Mantas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Instituto de Telecomunicações, Aveiro, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8074-0417","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Instituto de Telecomunicações, Aveiro, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210120471"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5018529650","display_name":"Kyriakos Porfyrakis","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1364-0261"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55060895","display_name":"University of Greenwich","ror":"https://ror.org/00bmj0a71","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55060895"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kyriakos Porfyrakis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, U.K","Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1364-0261","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55060895"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55060895"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005759887","display_name":"Joaquim Bastos","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8182-5087"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210120471","display_name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es","ror":"https://ror.org/02ht4fk33","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210120471"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Joaquim Manuel Cam\u00f5es Sobral de Bastos","raw_affiliation_strings":["Instituto de Telecomunicações, Aveiro, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8182-5087","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Instituto de Telecomunicações, Aveiro, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210120471"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065466622","display_name":"Jonathan Rodr\u0131\u0301guez","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9829-0955"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210120471","display_name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es","ror":"https://ror.org/02ht4fk33","country_code":"PT","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210120471"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jonathan Rodriguez","raw_affiliation_strings":["Instituto de Telecomunicações, Aveiro, Portugal"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9829-0955","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Instituto de Telecomunicações, Aveiro, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210120471"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":17.5152,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":25,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99297676,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":null,"first_page":"41994","last_page":"42028"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9753000140190125,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.9753000140190125,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.776735782623291},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intrusion-detection-system","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","score":0.7058947086334229},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/anomaly-detection","display_name":"Anomaly detection","score":0.6371904015541077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/anomaly","display_name":"Anomaly (physics)","score":0.510543942451477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.46071773767471313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.4364981949329376}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.776735782623291},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C35525427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745881","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","level":2,"score":0.7058947086334229},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C739882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560506","display_name":"Anomaly detection","level":2,"score":0.6371904015541077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12997251","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q567560","display_name":"Anomaly (physics)","level":2,"score":0.510543942451477},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.46071773767471313},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.4364981949329376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26873012","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214781","display_name":"Condensed matter physics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3547572","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3547572","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:gala.gre.ac.uk:50712","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9130-4605","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401244","display_name":"Greenwich Academic Literature Archive (University of Greenwich)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I55060895","host_organization_name":"University of Greenwich","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55060895"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:da12a6725acd49a1b67f57d5730a8f7e","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/da12a6725acd49a1b67f57d5730a8f7e","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 13, Pp 41994-42028 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2025.3547572","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2025.3547572","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2529075175","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"GA No 101007273","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320327207","funder_display_name":"Electronic Components and Systems for European Leadership"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2955844747","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"101007273","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320327207","funder_display_name":"Electronic Components and Systems for European Leadership"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3890911484","display_name":"Distributed Artificial Intelligent Systems","funder_award_id":"101007273","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G497314643","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"GA No 101131481","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338438","funder_display_name":"HORIZON EUROPE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6464991413","display_name":"distributed ledger technologies and user-driven automation towards self-SOVEREIGN mobile data access in beyond 5G networks","funder_award_id":"101131481","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338438","funder_display_name":"HORIZON EUROPE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6755148005","display_name":"Sistemas de Intelig\u00eancia Artificial Distribu\u00eddos","funder_award_id":"ECSEL/0002/2020","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334779","funder_display_name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G680659151","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"101131481","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320327207","display_name":"Electronic Components and Systems for European Leadership","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334322","display_name":"HORIZON EUROPE Framework Programme","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334779","display_name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","ror":"https://ror.org/00snfqn58"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338438","display_name":"HORIZON EUROPE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":76,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1943579973","https://openalex.org/W1988375738","https://openalex.org/W2036373650","https://openalex.org/W2096059127","https://openalex.org/W2099940443","https://openalex.org/W2115627867","https://openalex.org/W2165847864","https://openalex.org/W2396881363","https://openalex.org/W2768332178","https://openalex.org/W2782169620","https://openalex.org/W2789828921","https://openalex.org/W2888505697","https://openalex.org/W2897514040","https://openalex.org/W2918753059","https://openalex.org/W2930144424","https://openalex.org/W2963748489","https://openalex.org/W2971994234","https://openalex.org/W2979948793","https://openalex.org/W2995630772","https://openalex.org/W2996223571","https://openalex.org/W2997591727","https://openalex.org/W3006115916","https://openalex.org/W3015392399","https://openalex.org/W3033120446","https://openalex.org/W3033675321","https://openalex.org/W3043799819","https://openalex.org/W3045149779","https://openalex.org/W3048191665","https://openalex.org/W3085955590","https://openalex.org/W3087990969","https://openalex.org/W3111288713","https://openalex.org/W3118773375","https://openalex.org/W3127413902","https://openalex.org/W3131923749","https://openalex.org/W3132008952","https://openalex.org/W3159885303","https://openalex.org/W3167074229","https://openalex.org/W3169598894","https://openalex.org/W3172424875","https://openalex.org/W3186579237","https://openalex.org/W3190067653","https://openalex.org/W3190323067","https://openalex.org/W3192892322","https://openalex.org/W3195413461","https://openalex.org/W3200314112","https://openalex.org/W3205446974","https://openalex.org/W3213173707","https://openalex.org/W4200100780","https://openalex.org/W4205584976","https://openalex.org/W4206968235","https://openalex.org/W4207072427","https://openalex.org/W4210656975","https://openalex.org/W4223612401","https://openalex.org/W4225147756","https://openalex.org/W4280623185","https://openalex.org/W4283030397","https://openalex.org/W4285030518","https://openalex.org/W4291158430","https://openalex.org/W4293451325","https://openalex.org/W4294673836","https://openalex.org/W4307868829","https://openalex.org/W4308086993","https://openalex.org/W4311214690","https://openalex.org/W4317038427","https://openalex.org/W4376855329","https://openalex.org/W4379618984","https://openalex.org/W4385217388","https://openalex.org/W4386070139","https://openalex.org/W4386521761","https://openalex.org/W4387870843","https://openalex.org/W4387917942","https://openalex.org/W4388775013","https://openalex.org/W4388914801","https://openalex.org/W4390603809","https://openalex.org/W4401210511","https://openalex.org/W6757844995"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2806741695","https://openalex.org/W4290647774","https://openalex.org/W3189286258","https://openalex.org/W3207797160","https://openalex.org/W3210364259","https://openalex.org/W4300558037","https://openalex.org/W2667207928","https://openalex.org/W2912112202","https://openalex.org/W4377864969","https://openalex.org/W3120251014"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"Internet":[1,14],"of":[2,12,15,29,58,82,93,117,136,146,153,200,219,237],"Things":[3,17],"has":[4],"transformed":[5],"the":[6,10,13,55,59,75,115,124,151,167,187,198,201,207,220,238],"healthcare":[7],"sector":[8],"through":[9],"introduction":[11],"Medical":[16],"(IoMT)":[18],"technology.":[19],"However,":[20],"IoMT":[21,60,68,98],"networks":[22,69],"remain":[23],"vulnerable":[24],"to":[25,32,64,183],"a":[26,88,94,213,226],"wide":[27],"range":[28],"threats":[30],"due":[31],"their":[33,71,164],"resource-constrained":[34],"characteristics":[35],"and":[36,45,86,90,109,129,143,157,162,179,206,224],"heterogeneity.":[37],"Therefore,":[38],"novel":[39],"security":[40],"mechanisms":[41],"such":[42],"as":[43,133],"accurate":[44],"efficient":[46],"Anomaly-based":[47],"Intrusion":[48],"Detection":[49,156,159],"Systems":[50],"(AIDSs),":[51],"taking":[52],"into":[53,186],"consideration":[54],"inherent":[56],"limitations":[57],"networks,":[61],"are":[62,181],"necessary":[63],"be":[65,184],"developed":[66],"before":[67],"reach":[70],"full":[72],"potential":[73],"in":[74],"market.":[76],"This":[77],"paper":[78],"is":[79],"an":[80,191],"extension":[81],"our":[83,118],"previous":[84],"works":[85],"presents":[87],"new":[89],"refined":[91],"design":[92],"hybrid":[95],"AIDS":[96,125,188,203,239],"for":[97,217,240],"networks.":[99],"Furthermore,":[100],"we":[101,149,196],"provide":[102],"implementation":[103],"details":[104],"on":[105,190],"Raspberry":[106],"Pi":[107],"devices":[108],"performance":[110,199,216],"evaluation":[111,209],"results":[112,210],"that":[113],"demonstrate":[114],"efficacy":[116],"approach.":[119],"For":[120],"its":[121],"detection":[122,128,131,215],"purposes,":[123],"employs":[126],"Novelty":[127,155],"Outlier":[130,158],"algorithms":[132,138,161,171],"these":[134],"types":[135,145],"ML":[137,160,170,222,243],"can":[139],"detect":[140],"both":[141],"known":[142],"unknown":[144],"attacks.":[147],"Then,":[148],"tuned":[150],"hyperparameters":[152],"various":[154],"evaluated":[163,197],"performance.":[165],"Afterwards,":[166],"best":[168],"performing":[169],"(i.e.,":[172,230],"OCSVM,":[173],"LOF,":[174],"G_KDE,":[175],"PW_KDE,":[176],"B_GMM,":[177],"MCD":[178],"IsoForest)":[180],"selected":[182],"integrated":[185,221,242],"deployed":[189,202],"IoT/IoMT":[192],"testbed.":[193],"In":[194],"addition,":[195],"during":[204],"runtime,":[205],"runtime":[208],"indicate:":[211],"(i)":[212],"strong":[214],"some":[218],"algorithms,":[223],"(ii)":[225],"low":[227],"computational":[228],"cost":[229],"less":[231],"than":[232],"1":[233],"%":[234],"cpu":[235],"usage)":[236],"all":[241],"algorithms.":[244]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":15},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":10}],"updated_date":"2026-07-15T18:14:33.161393","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}