{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4391855109","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3365742","title":"A Review on Large Language Models: Architectures, Applications, Taxonomies, Open Issues and Challenges","display_name":"A Review on Large Language Models: Architectures, Applications, Taxonomies, Open Issues and Challenges","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4391855109","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3365742"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3365742","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3365742","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10433480.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"review","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10433480.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055795711","display_name":"Mohaimenul Azam Khan Raiaan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4793-5382"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63169043","display_name":"United International University","ror":"https://ror.org/01tqv1p28","country_code":"BD","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}],"countries":["BD"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Mohaimenul Azam Khan Raiaan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4793-5382","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5087616870","display_name":"Md. Saddam Hossain Mukta","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2675-5471"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63548447","display_name":"Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/0208vgz68","country_code":"FI","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63548447"]}],"countries":["FI"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Md. Saddam Hossain Mukta","raw_affiliation_strings":["LUT School of Engineering Sciences, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, Lappeenranta, Finland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2675-5471","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"LUT School of Engineering Sciences, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology, Lappeenranta, Finland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63548447"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008339199","display_name":"Kaniz Fatema","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0787-5403"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I29894533","display_name":"Charles Darwin University","ror":"https://ror.org/048zcaj52","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I29894533"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kaniz Fatema","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Science and Technology, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, NT, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0787-5403","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Science and Technology, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, NT, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I29894533"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022918060","display_name":"Nur Mohammad Fahad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5445-6925"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63169043","display_name":"United International University","ror":"https://ror.org/01tqv1p28","country_code":"BD","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}],"countries":["BD"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nur Mohammad Fahad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008882566","display_name":"Sadman Sakib","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2007-5746"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63169043","display_name":"United International University","ror":"https://ror.org/01tqv1p28","country_code":"BD","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}],"countries":["BD"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sadman Sakib","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2007-5746","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5092939745","display_name":"Most. Marufatul Jannat Mim","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63169043","display_name":"United International University","ror":"https://ror.org/01tqv1p28","country_code":"BD","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}],"countries":["BD"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Most Marufatul Jannat Mim","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7138-2331","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5018257829","display_name":"Jubaer Ahmad","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63169043","display_name":"United International University","ror":"https://ror.org/01tqv1p28","country_code":"BD","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}],"countries":["BD"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jubaer Ahmad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000819439","display_name":"Mohammed Eunus Ali","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0384-7616"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I183697816","display_name":"Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05a1qpv97","country_code":"BD","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183697816"]}],"countries":["BD"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammed Eunus Ali","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of CSE, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0384-7616","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of CSE, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I183697816"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062716310","display_name":"Sami Azam","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7572-9750"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I29894533","display_name":"Charles Darwin University","ror":"https://ror.org/048zcaj52","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I29894533"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sami Azam","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Science and Technology, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, NT, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7572-9750","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Science and Technology, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, NT, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I29894533"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":9,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5055795711"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63169043"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":206.5874,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":669,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99993396,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"12","issue":null,"first_page":"26839","last_page":"26874"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.998199999332428,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11719","display_name":"Data Quality and Management","score":0.9846000075340271,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1803","display_name":"Management Science and Operations Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7990404367446899},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/open-research","display_name":"Open research","score":0.4150713384151459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.40544137358665466},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.320198655128479},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/world-wide-web","display_name":"World Wide Web","score":0.26218676567077637}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7990404367446899},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778464652","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309849","display_name":"Open research","level":2,"score":0.4150713384151459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.40544137358665466},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.320198655128479},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136764020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466","display_name":"World Wide Web","level":1,"score":0.26218676567077637}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3365742","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3365742","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10433480.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:348a0c6fe30042699e805549b58b7b57","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/348a0c6fe30042699e805549b58b7b57","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 12, Pp 26839-26874 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3365742","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3365742","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10433480.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4391855109.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4391855109.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":230,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W179875071","https://openalex.org/W187290754","https://openalex.org/W2001771035","https://openalex.org/W2005874308","https://openalex.org/W2037450062","https://openalex.org/W2070398553","https://openalex.org/W2075354211","https://openalex.org/W2121879602","https://openalex.org/W2137983211","https://openalex.org/W2165545766","https://openalex.org/W2323385789","https://openalex.org/W2525778437","https://openalex.org/W2896457183","https://openalex.org/W2899663614","https://openalex.org/W2911489562","https://openalex.org/W2948947170","https://openalex.org/W2952638691","https://openalex.org/W2962784628","https://openalex.org/W2963979492","https://openalex.org/W2964264308","https://openalex.org/W2965373594","https://openalex.org/W2966255914","https://openalex.org/W2972498556","https://openalex.org/W2973727699","https://openalex.org/W2978017171","https://openalex.org/W2979826702","https://openalex.org/W2982555889","https://openalex.org/W2988937804","https://openalex.org/W2994045732","https://openalex.org/W2996428491","https://openalex.org/W3002029438","https://openalex.org/W3033777936","https://openalex.org/W3035390927","https://openalex.org/W3035498813","https://openalex.org/W3046375318","https://openalex.org/W3090789254","https://openalex.org/W3093671002","https://openalex.org/W3095319910","https://openalex.org/W3096485810","https://openalex.org/W3099750501","https://openalex.org/W3102659883","https://openalex.org/W3112467147","https://openalex.org/W3119438769","https://openalex.org/W3130890978","https://openalex.org/W3141961557","https://openalex.org/W3146142859","https://openalex.org/W3158733382","https://openalex.org/W3164670515","https://openalex.org/W3164692279","https://openalex.org/W3164718925","https://openalex.org/W3169483174","https://openalex.org/W3173751215","https://openalex.org/W3174770825","https://openalex.org/W3185341429","https://openalex.org/W3187459523","https://openalex.org/W3194005300","https://openalex.org/W3194782062","https://openalex.org/W3197782487","https://openalex.org/W3201107983","https://openalex.org/W3202773593","https://openalex.org/W3203279312","https://openalex.org/W3213080957","https://openalex.org/W4200112156","https://openalex.org/W4205991051","https://openalex.org/W4211202729","https://openalex.org/W4213148310","https://openalex.org/W4221090794","https://openalex.org/W4221167110","https://openalex.org/W4224308101","https://openalex.org/W4225411436","https://openalex.org/W4225591000","https://openalex.org/W4225808286","https://openalex.org/W4226399820","https://openalex.org/W4226485558","https://openalex.org/W4229005866","https://openalex.org/W4283654020","https://openalex.org/W4283794395","https://openalex.org/W4285225959","https://openalex.org/W4287327402","https://openalex.org/W4290737473","https://openalex.org/W4297253404","https://openalex.org/W4301581299","https://openalex.org/W4303443398","https://openalex.org/W4307079201","https://openalex.org/W4307958490","https://openalex.org/W4308760226","https://openalex.org/W4311408938","https://openalex.org/W4311887664","https://openalex.org/W4311991135","https://openalex.org/W4313015712","https://openalex.org/W4318069287","https://openalex.org/W4319165821","https://openalex.org/W4319662928","https://openalex.org/W4320005767","https://openalex.org/W4320495408","https://openalex.org/W4321610465","https://openalex.org/W4321854923","https://openalex.org/W4322718191","https://openalex.org/W4323050332","https://openalex.org/W4323654151","https://openalex.org/W4323655724","https://openalex.org/W4327519588","https://openalex.org/W4327545654","https://openalex.org/W4327810667","https://openalex.org/W4327946446","https://openalex.org/W4353094257","https://openalex.org/W4360620450","https://openalex.org/W4361984138","https://openalex.org/W4361988710","https://openalex.org/W4362498881","https://openalex.org/W4362515116","https://openalex.org/W4362679551","https://openalex.org/W4362707064","https://openalex.org/W4364378150","https://openalex.org/W4365512576","https://openalex.org/W4366376874","https://openalex.org/W4366392287","https://openalex.org/W4366420437","https://openalex.org/W4366989525","https://openalex.org/W4367666119","https://openalex.org/W4378619531","https://openalex.org/W4378783467","https://openalex.org/W4379251582","https://openalex.org/W4379468930","https://openalex.org/W4380267320","https://openalex.org/W4381571703","https://openalex.org/W4382173247","https://openalex.org/W4382583857","https://openalex.org/W4383046644","https://openalex.org/W4383473194","https://openalex.org/W4383500999","https://openalex.org/W4383737134","https://openalex.org/W4383913712","https://openalex.org/W4384389802","https://openalex.org/W4384561707","https://openalex.org/W4385245566","https://openalex.org/W4385346108","https://openalex.org/W4385570090","https://openalex.org/W4385571689","https://openalex.org/W4385571791","https://openalex.org/W4385573917","https://openalex.org/W4385576054","https://openalex.org/W4385681528","https://openalex.org/W4385852384","https://openalex.org/W4385890089","https://openalex.org/W4386273386","https://openalex.org/W4386566677","https://openalex.org/W4386917649","https://openalex.org/W4387014587","https://openalex.org/W4387323731","https://openalex.org/W4387356327","https://openalex.org/W4387860528","https://openalex.org/W4387876242","https://openalex.org/W4388335799","https://openalex.org/W4388858458","https://openalex.org/W4389523861","https://openalex.org/W4389524085","https://openalex.org/W4389524559","https://openalex.org/W4390659326","https://openalex.org/W4391136507","https://openalex.org/W4393160809","https://openalex.org/W4394994587","https://openalex.org/W4396870811","https://openalex.org/W4400450746","https://openalex.org/W4402364221","https://openalex.org/W4402794779","https://openalex.org/W4404518472","https://openalex.org/W6638575559","https://openalex.org/W6721933647","https://openalex.org/W6727690538","https://openalex.org/W6744845598","https://openalex.org/W6755207826","https://openalex.org/W6755977528","https://openalex.org/W6761628794","https://openalex.org/W6763701032","https://openalex.org/W6767440493","https://openalex.org/W6767997687","https://openalex.org/W6768021236","https://openalex.org/W6768851824","https://openalex.org/W6769263558","https://openalex.org/W6771889691","https://openalex.org/W6773820404","https://openalex.org/W6778883912","https://openalex.org/W6784577980","https://openalex.org/W6787564935","https://openalex.org/W6794212170","https://openalex.org/W6803508786","https://openalex.org/W6805239564","https://openalex.org/W6809646742","https://openalex.org/W6810081322","https://openalex.org/W6810220367","https://openalex.org/W6810296985","https://openalex.org/W6810874553","https://openalex.org/W6811129797","https://openalex.org/W6811340617","https://openalex.org/W6846002521","https://openalex.org/W6846168271","https://openalex.org/W6846421259","https://openalex.org/W6846767490","https://openalex.org/W6846868997","https://openalex.org/W6846907077","https://openalex.org/W6847076894","https://openalex.org/W6847280464","https://openalex.org/W6849677550","https://openalex.org/W6849941170","https://openalex.org/W6850068309","https://openalex.org/W6850260469","https://openalex.org/W6850625674","https://openalex.org/W6851437002","https://openalex.org/W6851581138","https://openalex.org/W6851775633","https://openalex.org/W6851960618","https://openalex.org/W6852584927","https://openalex.org/W6852789761","https://openalex.org/W6853244377","https://openalex.org/W6853582642","https://openalex.org/W6853700134","https://openalex.org/W6853731461","https://openalex.org/W6854135110","https://openalex.org/W6854422757","https://openalex.org/W6854474899","https://openalex.org/W6854475153","https://openalex.org/W6854506972","https://openalex.org/W6855109554","https://openalex.org/W6855399105","https://openalex.org/W6855780230","https://openalex.org/W6855961868","https://openalex.org/W6857089736","https://openalex.org/W6857364563","https://openalex.org/W6857605197"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391375266","https://openalex.org/W2899084033","https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2390279801","https://openalex.org/W2135054431","https://openalex.org/W2081307663","https://openalex.org/W2290480557","https://openalex.org/W2242910500","https://openalex.org/W4313893854","https://openalex.org/W4313246833"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"Language":[1],"Models":[2],"(LLMs)":[3],"recently":[4],"demonstrated":[5,201],"extraordinary":[6],"capability,":[7],"including":[8,128,220],"natural":[9],"language":[10,13,30],"processing":[11],"(NLP),":[12],"translation,":[14],"text":[15],"generation,":[16],"question":[17],"answering,":[18],"etc.":[19,139],"Moreover,":[20],"LLMs":[21,53,83,149,156,233,265],"are":[22],"a":[23,56,77,101,111],"new":[24,80],"and":[25,40,43,187,222,227,239,245,261,277,289],"essential":[26],"part":[27],"of":[28,52,73,79,96,98,116,148,154,164,170,178,185,216,218,243,283],"computerized":[29],"processing,":[31],"having":[32],"the":[33,47,70,105,117,145,155,165,168,176,182,188,202,206,210,213,241,281],"ability":[34],"to":[35,68,92,196,251,263,273],"understand":[36,69,280],"complex":[37],"verbal":[38],"patterns":[39],"generate":[41],"coherent":[42],"appropriate":[44],"replies":[45],"for":[46],"situation.":[48],"Though":[49],"this":[50,121],"success":[51],"has":[54,64],"prompted":[55],"substantial":[57],"increase":[58],"in":[59,100,120,180,205,266],"research":[60,81,106],"contributions,":[61],"rapid":[62],"growth":[63],"made":[65],"it":[66,88,256],"difficult":[67],"overall":[71],"impact":[72,236],"these":[74],"improvements.":[75],"Since":[76],"lot":[78],"on":[82,237],"is":[84,89],"coming":[85],"out":[86],"quickly,":[87],"getting":[90],"tough":[91],"get":[93],"an":[94,162,235],"overview":[95,163],"all":[97],"them":[99],"short":[102,112],"note.":[103],"Consequently,":[104],"community":[107],"would":[108],"benefit":[109],"from":[110],"but":[113],"thorough":[114],"review":[115,270],"recent":[118],"changes":[119],"area.":[122],"This":[123,140],"article":[124],"thoroughly":[125,279],"overviews":[126],"LLMs,":[127,171,181,186,219,284],"their":[129,172],"history,":[130],"architectures,":[131,286],"transformers,":[132],"resources,":[133],"training":[134,157,190],"methods,":[135],"applications,":[136,287],"impacts,":[137],"challenges,":[138,288],"paper":[141,211,271],"begins":[142],"by":[143],"discussing":[144],"fundamental":[146],"concepts":[147],"with":[150],"its":[151],"traditional":[152],"pipeline":[153],"phase.":[158],"It":[159,199,229],"then":[160],"provides":[161],"existing":[166],"works,":[167],"history":[169],"evolution":[173,282],"over":[174],"time,":[175],"architecture":[177],"transformers":[179],"different":[183,189],"resources":[184],"methods":[191],"that":[192],"have":[193],"been":[194],"used":[195,250],"train":[197],"them.":[198],"also":[200,230,257],"datasets":[203],"utilized":[204],"studies.":[207],"After":[208],"that,":[209],"discusses":[212],"wide":[214],"range":[215],"applications":[217],"biomedical":[221],"healthcare,":[223],"education,":[224],"social,":[225],"business,":[226],"agriculture.":[228],"illustrates":[231],"how":[232,246],"create":[234],"society":[238],"shape":[240],"future":[242,290],"AI":[244],"they":[247],"can":[248],"be":[249],"solve":[252],"real-world":[253,267],"problems.":[254],"Then":[255],"explores":[258],"open":[259],"issues":[260],"challenges":[262],"deploying":[264],"scenario.":[268],"Our":[269],"aims":[272],"help":[274],"practitioners,":[275],"researchers,":[276],"experts":[278],"pre-trained":[285],"goals.":[291]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":143},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":405},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":120},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-04T09:04:59.091469","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}