{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4391019749","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3356122","title":"CIFAKE: Image Classification and Explainable Identification of AI-Generated Synthetic Images","display_name":"CIFAKE: Image Classification and Explainable Identification of AI-Generated Synthetic Images","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4391019749","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3356122"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3356122","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3356122","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10409290.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10409290.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5080362193","display_name":"Jordan J. Bird","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9858-1231"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I52590639","display_name":"Nottingham Trent University","ror":"https://ror.org/04xyxjd90","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jordan J. Bird","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, U.K","Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006193695","display_name":"Ahmad Lotfi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5139-6565"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I52590639","display_name":"Nottingham Trent University","ror":"https://ror.org/04xyxjd90","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ahmad Lotfi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, U.K","Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5080362193"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":42.8095,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":180,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99921856,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"12","issue":null,"first_page":"15642","last_page":"15650"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10775","display_name":"Generative Adversarial Networks and Image Synthesis","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10775","display_name":"Generative Adversarial Networks and Image Synthesis","score":0.9962000250816345,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12357","display_name":"Digital Media Forensic Detection","score":0.9904999732971191,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10036","display_name":"Advanced Neural Network Applications","score":0.9857000112533569,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8375166654586792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.768736720085144},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.6876860857009888},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identification","display_name":"Identification (biology)","score":0.5616154074668884},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hyperparameter","display_name":"Hyperparameter","score":0.5603663921356201},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.5039157271385193},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.47208353877067566},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/contextual-image-classification","display_name":"Contextual image classification","score":0.45623090863227844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-set","display_name":"Data set","score":0.44095537066459656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/class","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","score":0.4390578866004944},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.4090386629104614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.4030580520629883},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.3446532189846039}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8375166654586792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.768736720085144},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.6876860857009888},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116834253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2039217","display_name":"Identification (biology)","level":2,"score":0.5616154074668884},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8642999","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4171168","display_name":"Hyperparameter","level":2,"score":0.5603663921356201},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.5039157271385193},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.47208353877067566},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75294576","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165192","display_name":"Contextual image classification","level":3,"score":0.45623090863227844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58489278","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172284","display_name":"Data set","level":2,"score":0.44095537066459656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777212361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5127848","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.4390578866004944},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.4090386629104614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4030580520629883},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.3446532189846039},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59822182","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q441","display_name":"Botany","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3356122","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3356122","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10409290.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:460145fefa9d4494954048014a1507b2","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/460145fefa9d4494954048014a1507b2","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 12, Pp 15642-15650 (2024)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:irep.ntu.ac.uk:50758","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/50758/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400559","display_name":"Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I52590639","host_organization_name":"Nottingham Trent University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3356122","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3356122","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10409290.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4391019749.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4391019749.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":35,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2731865786","https://openalex.org/W2888519208","https://openalex.org/W2911424785","https://openalex.org/W2919115771","https://openalex.org/W2962858109","https://openalex.org/W2962949934","https://openalex.org/W2995516027","https://openalex.org/W2995523160","https://openalex.org/W3118608800","https://openalex.org/W3119391778","https://openalex.org/W3137986835","https://openalex.org/W3154326567","https://openalex.org/W3159834477","https://openalex.org/W3161986877","https://openalex.org/W3164782458","https://openalex.org/W3168997536","https://openalex.org/W3204619099","https://openalex.org/W4281485151","https://openalex.org/W4304701343","https://openalex.org/W4306820534","https://openalex.org/W4312758842","https://openalex.org/W4312933868","https://openalex.org/W4313485001","https://openalex.org/W4318902838","https://openalex.org/W4324395489","https://openalex.org/W4375869427","https://openalex.org/W4388858946","https://openalex.org/W6790978476","https://openalex.org/W6838639034","https://openalex.org/W6846007759","https://openalex.org/W6846174284","https://openalex.org/W6846236161","https://openalex.org/W6846248380","https://openalex.org/W6849517043","https://openalex.org/W6849848203"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4206951940","https://openalex.org/W4293868382","https://openalex.org/W4382602594","https://openalex.org/W4387850423","https://openalex.org/W2911497689","https://openalex.org/W2952813363","https://openalex.org/W2963346891","https://openalex.org/W4360783045","https://openalex.org/W2770149305","https://openalex.org/W3167930666"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Recent":[0],"advances":[1],"in":[2,98,196,219],"synthetic":[3,56],"data":[4,36,104],"have":[5],"enabled":[6],"the":[7,20,32,62,66,115,127,137,149,156,162,183,194,200,212,220,223,235,243],"generation":[8],"of":[9,35,65,78,89,103,129,151,222],"images":[10,50,79,138,163,184],"with":[11,71,111,164],"such":[12,94],"high":[13],"quality":[14],"that":[15,60,199],"human":[16],"beings":[17],"cannot":[18],"tell":[19],"difference":[21],"between":[22],"real-life":[23],"photographs":[24],"and":[25,38,148],"Artificial":[26],"Intelligence":[27],"(AI)":[28],"generated":[29,59,120],"images.":[30,224],"Given":[31],"critical":[33],"necessity":[34],"reliability":[37],"authentication,":[39],"this":[40,168,230],"article":[41],"proposes":[42,126],"to":[43,47,82,113,135,178,233,242],"enhance":[44],"our":[45],"ability":[46],"recognise":[48],"AI-generated":[49],"through":[51],"computer":[52],"vision.":[53],"Initially,":[54],"a":[55,75,107,130],"dataset":[57,70,227],"is":[58,87,117,238],"mirrors":[61],"ten":[63],"classes":[64],"already":[67],"available":[68,241],"CIFAR-10":[69],"latent":[72],"diffusion,":[73],"providing":[74],"contrasting":[76],"set":[77],"for":[80,187,209,229,246],"comparison":[81],"real":[83,118],"photographs.":[84],"The":[85,100,225],"model":[86,213],"capable":[88],"generating":[90],"complex":[91],"visual":[92,217],"attributes,":[93],"as":[95,106,234],"photorealistic":[96],"reflections":[97],"water.":[99],"two":[101,140],"sets":[102],"present":[105],"binary":[108],"classification":[109],"problem":[110],"regard":[112],"whether":[114],"photograph":[116],"or":[119,143],"by":[121],"AI.":[122],"This":[123],"study":[124,169],"then":[125],"use":[128],"Convolutional":[131],"Neural":[132],"Network":[133],"(CNN)":[134],"classify":[136,161],"into":[139],"categories;":[141],"Real":[142],"Fake.":[144],"Following":[145],"hyperparameter":[146],"tuning":[147],"training":[150],"36":[152],"individual":[153],"network":[154],"topologies,":[155],"optimal":[157],"approach":[158],"could":[159],"correctly":[160],"92.98%":[165],"accuracy.":[166],"Finally,":[167],"implements":[170],"explainable":[171],"AI":[172],"via":[173],"Gradient":[174],"Class":[175],"Activation":[176],"Mapping":[177],"explore":[179],"which":[180],"features":[181],"within":[182,193],"are":[185],"useful":[186,207],"classification.":[188],"Interpretation":[189],"reveals":[190],"interesting":[191],"concepts":[192],"image,":[195],"particular,":[197],"noting":[198],"actual":[201],"entity":[202],"itself":[203],"does":[204],"not":[205],"hold":[206],"information":[208],"classification;":[210],"instead,":[211],"focuses":[214],"on":[215],"small":[216],"imperfections":[218],"background":[221],"complete":[226],"engineered":[228],"study,":[231],"referred":[232],"CIFAKE":[236],"dataset,":[237],"made":[239],"publicly":[240],"research":[244],"community":[245],"future":[247],"work.":[248]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":19},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":106},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":48},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":7}],"updated_date":"2026-04-02T15:55:50.835912","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}