{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4389633818","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3342079","title":"Blockchain: A Crypto-Intensive Technology\u2014A Comprehensive Review","display_name":"Blockchain: A Crypto-Intensive Technology\u2014A Comprehensive Review","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4389633818","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3342079"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3342079","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3342079","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10354326.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10354326.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5012251044","display_name":"Muhammad Imran Sarwar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2750-1297"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210100043","display_name":"Superior University","ror":"https://ror.org/00yh88643","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhammad Imran Sarwar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science & IT, Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan","Department of Computer Science & IT, The Superior University, Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2750-1297","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & IT, Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & IT, The Superior University, Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5045078221","display_name":"Louai A. Maghrabi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8513-0645"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210165529","display_name":"University of Business and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05tcr1n44","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210165529"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Louai A. Maghrabi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Software Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Business and Technology, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8513-0645","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Business and Technology, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210165529"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101887978","display_name":"Imran Khan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1447-3912"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210100043","display_name":"Superior University","ror":"https://ror.org/00yh88643","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79510175","display_name":"Cardiff University","ror":"https://ror.org/03kk7td41","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79510175"]}],"countries":["GB","PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Imran Khan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science & IT, Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan","Department of Computer Science & IT, The Superior University, Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan","School of Computer Science and Informatics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1447-3912","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & IT, Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & IT, The Superior University, Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computer Science and Informatics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79510175"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034647722","display_name":"Qamar H. Naith","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8229-2427"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210099699","display_name":"University of Jeddah","ror":"https://ror.org/015ya8798","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210099699"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Qamar H. Naith","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Software Engineering, College of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8229-2427","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software Engineering, College of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210099699"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032408801","display_name":"Kashif Nisar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8092-4665"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210100043","display_name":"Superior University","ror":"https://ror.org/00yh88643","country_code":"PK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]}],"countries":["PK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kashif Nisar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science & IT, Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan","Department of Computer Science & IT, The Superior University, Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1784-5259","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & IT, Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science & IT, The Superior University, Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210100043"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":5.1762,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":12,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95854568,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"11","issue":null,"first_page":"141926","last_page":"141955"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9979000091552734,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9979000091552734,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14064","display_name":"Organizational and Employee Performance","score":0.9434000253677368,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13038","display_name":"Internet of Things and AI","score":0.9226999878883362,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain","display_name":"Blockchain","score":0.89750075340271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7887547016143799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptographic-primitive","display_name":"Cryptographic primitive","score":0.7462766170501709},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.7299529314041138},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.6654007434844971},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptographic-protocol","display_name":"Cryptographic protocol","score":0.42172324657440186}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.89750075340271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7887547016143799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15927051","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q246593","display_name":"Cryptographic primitive","level":4,"score":0.7462766170501709},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.7299529314041138},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.6654007434844971},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33884865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1254335","display_name":"Cryptographic protocol","level":3,"score":0.42172324657440186}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3342079","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3342079","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10354326.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk:170524","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":"https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/170524/1/Blockchain_A_Crypto-Intensive_TechnologyA_Comprehensive_Review.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401195","display_name":"ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I79510175","host_organization_name":"Cardiff University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79510175"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:7bbd3e84b74641d58c83b2dcda30075f","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/7bbd3e84b74641d58c83b2dcda30075f","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 11, Pp 141926-141955 (2023)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3342079","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3342079","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10354326.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.4099999964237213,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/17","display_name":"Partnerships for the goals"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4389633818.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4389633818.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":106,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W191000419","https://openalex.org/W1572490578","https://openalex.org/W1972614536","https://openalex.org/W1997911919","https://openalex.org/W2003736153","https://openalex.org/W2013302720","https://openalex.org/W2036378739","https://openalex.org/W2115148615","https://openalex.org/W2183126124","https://openalex.org/W2415710521","https://openalex.org/W2507130841","https://openalex.org/W2553854225","https://openalex.org/W2556372130","https://openalex.org/W2593725966","https://openalex.org/W2620085947","https://openalex.org/W2620636316","https://openalex.org/W2732884762","https://openalex.org/W2766522683","https://openalex.org/W2781707110","https://openalex.org/W2788443451","https://openalex.org/W2792850657","https://openalex.org/W2799719933","https://openalex.org/W2802967788","https://openalex.org/W2803357021","https://openalex.org/W2807864574","https://openalex.org/W2809892904","https://openalex.org/W2886177063","https://openalex.org/W2887566755","https://openalex.org/W2887892221","https://openalex.org/W2897450989","https://openalex.org/W2901477756","https://openalex.org/W2912402111","https://openalex.org/W2913135074","https://openalex.org/W2914654142","https://openalex.org/W2920960013","https://openalex.org/W2921035272","https://openalex.org/W2942868101","https://openalex.org/W2945287947","https://openalex.org/W2945652512","https://openalex.org/W2964523751","https://openalex.org/W2966854229","https://openalex.org/W2967604605","https://openalex.org/W2968654610","https://openalex.org/W2969954377","https://openalex.org/W2970471397","https://openalex.org/W2984839651","https://openalex.org/W2987069389","https://openalex.org/W2990072572","https://openalex.org/W3000038571","https://openalex.org/W3000040162","https://openalex.org/W3000499911","https://openalex.org/W3000833961","https://openalex.org/W3003452664","https://openalex.org/W3004829098","https://openalex.org/W3006723533","https://openalex.org/W3007237729","https://openalex.org/W3008271172","https://openalex.org/W3012447079","https://openalex.org/W3015725655","https://openalex.org/W3036397807","https://openalex.org/W3047294114","https://openalex.org/W3049532577","https://openalex.org/W3084719440","https://openalex.org/W3088115909","https://openalex.org/W3091614728","https://openalex.org/W3103740122","https://openalex.org/W3103946932","https://openalex.org/W3105177289","https://openalex.org/W3105788074","https://openalex.org/W3106248957","https://openalex.org/W3110447857","https://openalex.org/W3110587988","https://openalex.org/W3110710286","https://openalex.org/W3119925017","https://openalex.org/W3124573836","https://openalex.org/W3136352779","https://openalex.org/W3150046051","https://openalex.org/W3155285027","https://openalex.org/W3156129242","https://openalex.org/W3165364558","https://openalex.org/W3166882594","https://openalex.org/W3177737522","https://openalex.org/W3179292749","https://openalex.org/W3180737565","https://openalex.org/W3184341740","https://openalex.org/W3194387770","https://openalex.org/W3209064819","https://openalex.org/W3211533617","https://openalex.org/W4214667959","https://openalex.org/W4220942018","https://openalex.org/W4223932426","https://openalex.org/W4240229805","https://openalex.org/W4248175462","https://openalex.org/W4252161451","https://openalex.org/W4295531911","https://openalex.org/W4385227351","https://openalex.org/W4385805359","https://openalex.org/W4389510316","https://openalex.org/W6678832241","https://openalex.org/W6741248724","https://openalex.org/W6748300356","https://openalex.org/W6752661639","https://openalex.org/W6759973471","https://openalex.org/W6765986982","https://openalex.org/W6766779148","https://openalex.org/W6797471469"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2904818008","https://openalex.org/W2904314268","https://openalex.org/W57958781","https://openalex.org/W1554274402","https://openalex.org/W87530933","https://openalex.org/W2289378658","https://openalex.org/W1531360494","https://openalex.org/W1988007309","https://openalex.org/W154233216","https://openalex.org/W2102905434"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Blockchain":[0],"has":[1,23,28,98],"shifted":[2],"the":[3,10,29,33,42,48,89,119,131,145,172,176,188,193,218],"paradigm":[4],"of":[5,68,92,113,121,152,180,195],"computer-based":[6],"commercial":[7],"applications":[8],"during":[9],"last":[11],"decade.":[12],"Initially":[13],"developed":[14],"as":[15,76],"a":[16,61,149,184],"public":[17],"ledger":[18],"for":[19,102,203],"Bitcoin":[20],"transactions,":[21],"it":[22,27,97],"already":[24],"shown":[25],"that":[26],"potential":[30],"to":[31,53,80,106,143,187,211],"revolutionize":[32],"world,":[34],"where":[35],"trust,":[36],"security,":[37],"privacy,":[38],"and":[39,55,66,94,118,141,147,168,191,198,206,215],"anonymity":[40],"are":[41,78,124],"assurances.":[43],"The":[44,64,111,178],"data":[45],"stored":[46],"within":[47,60],"blockchain":[49,69,84,140,156,202],"remains":[50],"unchangeable,":[51],"resistant":[52],"tampering,":[54],"distributed":[56],"across":[57],"multiple":[58],"locations":[59],"decentralized":[62],"network.":[63],"existence":[65],"reliability":[67],"rely":[70],"heavily":[71],"on":[72,135,171,175],"robust":[73],"cryptographic":[74,109,136,199],"primitives,":[75],"these":[77],"fundamental":[79],"its":[81,100,107],"operation.":[82],"While":[83],"faces":[85],"significant":[86],"challenges":[87,216],"in":[88,139,155,165,201,217],"ever-evolving":[90],"landscape":[91],"hardware":[93],"software":[95],"technologies,":[96],"retained":[99],"reputation":[101],"being":[103],"secure":[104],"due":[105],"underlying":[108],"primitives.":[110],"architecture":[112],"blockchain,":[114,196],"various":[115],"consensus":[116],"protocols,":[117],"impacts":[120],"quantum":[122],"computing":[123],"also":[125],"discussed":[126],"here.":[127],"This":[128],"study":[129,167,182],"reviews":[130],"existing":[132],"academic":[133],"literature":[134,174],"primitives":[137,200],"used":[138,164],"endeavours":[142],"bridge":[144],"gaps":[146],"provide":[148,183],"detailed":[150],"understanding":[151],"their":[153],"role":[154],"security.":[157],"An":[158],"exploratory":[159],"qualitative":[160],"research":[161],"methodology":[162],"is":[163,169],"this":[166,181],"based":[170],"latest":[173],"topics.":[177],"findings":[179],"valuable":[185],"reference":[186],"knowledge":[189],"body":[190],"enhance":[192],"comprehension":[194],"cryptography,":[197],"both":[204],"new":[205,213],"experienced":[207],"researchers,":[208],"enabling":[209],"them":[210],"identify":[212],"opportunities":[214],"domain.":[219]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-11T09:08:48.828518","created_date":"2023-12-13T00:00:00"}