{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4387885883","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3326528","title":"Vision Transformer Model for Predicting the Severity of Diabetic Retinopathy in Fundus Photography-Based Retina Images","display_name":"Vision Transformer Model for Predicting the Severity of Diabetic Retinopathy in Fundus Photography-Based Retina Images","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4387885883","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3326528"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3326528","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3326528","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10290868.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10290868.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090913323","display_name":"Waleed Nazih","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3153-4251"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142608572","display_name":"Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University","ror":"https://ror.org/04jt46d36","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142608572"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210140988","display_name":"Cairo Higher Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/045rvh172","country_code":"EG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210140988"]}],"countries":["EG","SA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Waleed Nazih","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia","Department of Computer Science, Cairo Higher Institute for Engineering, Computer Science and Management, Cairo, Egypt","Department of Computer Science, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3153-4251","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142608572"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Cairo Higher Institute for Engineering, Computer Science and Management, Cairo, Egypt","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210140988"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142608572"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Ahmad O. Aseeri","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4234-4069"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142608572","display_name":"Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University","ror":"https://ror.org/04jt46d36","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142608572"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ahmad O. Aseeri","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia","Department of Computer Science, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4234-4069","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142608572"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, College of Computer Engineering and Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142608572"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5047254844","display_name":"Osama Youssef Atallah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9850-7381"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I84524832","display_name":"Alexandria University","ror":"https://ror.org/00mzz1w90","country_code":"EG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I84524832"]}],"countries":["EG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Osama Youssef Atallah","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, El-Hadra Bahry, Alexandria, Egypt"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9850-7381","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, El-Hadra Bahry, Alexandria, Egypt","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I84524832"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5052265483","display_name":"Shaker El\u2013Sappagh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9705-1477"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130009713","display_name":"Suez University","ror":"https://ror.org/00ndhrx30","country_code":"EG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130009713"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I207547235","display_name":"Benha University","ror":"https://ror.org/03tn5ee41","country_code":"EG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I207547235"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4400009028","display_name":"Galala University","ror":"https://ror.org/04x3ne739","country_code":null,"type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4400009028"]}],"countries":["EG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shaker El-Sappagh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering, Galala University, Suez, Egypt","Information Systems Department, Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence, Benha University, Banha, Egypt"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9705-1477","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering, Galala University, Suez, Egypt","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130009713","https://openalex.org/I4400009028"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Systems Department, Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence, Benha University, Banha, Egypt","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I207547235"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5090913323"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142608572","https://openalex.org/I4210140988"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":28.2991,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":128,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99848729,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"11","issue":null,"first_page":"117546","last_page":"117561"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11438","display_name":"Retinal Imaging and Analysis","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11438","display_name":"Retinal Imaging and Analysis","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11396","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare","score":0.98089998960495,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3605","display_name":"Health Information Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/36","display_name":"Health Professions"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10170","display_name":"Retinal Diseases and Treatments","score":0.9646999835968018,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2731","display_name":"Ophthalmology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7948582172393799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6957560777664185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.6586211919784546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/diabetic-retinopathy","display_name":"Diabetic retinopathy","score":0.6135802865028381},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.5900638103485107},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fundus-photography","display_name":"Fundus photography","score":0.5620800256729126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fundus","display_name":"Fundus (uterus)","score":0.5067952275276184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blindness","display_name":"Blindness","score":0.457307368516922},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-vision","display_name":"Computer vision","score":0.44054728746414185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.3615459203720093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/diabetes-mellitus","display_name":"Diabetes mellitus","score":0.2169855535030365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/optometry","display_name":"Optometry","score":0.20797982811927795},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medicine","display_name":"Medicine","score":0.1511775255203247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ophthalmology","display_name":"Ophthalmology","score":0.1313941478729248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/visual-acuity","display_name":"Visual acuity","score":0.13115206360816956}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7948582172393799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6957560777664185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.6586211919784546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779829184","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q631361","display_name":"Diabetic retinopathy","level":3,"score":0.6135802865028381},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.5900638103485107},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776474195","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1144413","display_name":"Fundus photography","level":4,"score":0.5620800256729126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776391266","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9612","display_name":"Fundus (uterus)","level":2,"score":0.5067952275276184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780929884","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q737460","display_name":"Blindness","level":2,"score":0.457307368516922},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.44054728746414185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3615459203720093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555293320","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12206","display_name":"Diabetes mellitus","level":2,"score":0.2169855535030365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119767625","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q618211","display_name":"Optometry","level":1,"score":0.20797982811927795},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.1511775255203247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118487528","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161437","display_name":"Ophthalmology","level":1,"score":0.1313941478729248},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778257484","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q555066","display_name":"Visual acuity","level":2,"score":0.13115206360816956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134018914","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162606","display_name":"Endocrinology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780248432","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1434206","display_name":"Fluorescein angiography","level":3,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3326528","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3326528","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10290868.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:4762bd34018045118e30b2b7fff9babf","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/4762bd34018045118e30b2b7fff9babf","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 11, Pp 117546-117561 (2023)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3326528","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3326528","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10290868.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320311227","display_name":"Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University","ror":"https://ror.org/04jt46d36"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4387885883.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4387885883.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":84,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1966206262","https://openalex.org/W1969496006","https://openalex.org/W1982890488","https://openalex.org/W1995023030","https://openalex.org/W2107871626","https://openalex.org/W2127322315","https://openalex.org/W2234307896","https://openalex.org/W2535333834","https://openalex.org/W2757894858","https://openalex.org/W2769713325","https://openalex.org/W2828862258","https://openalex.org/W2887873758","https://openalex.org/W2908510526","https://openalex.org/W2908723574","https://openalex.org/W2934420704","https://openalex.org/W2942586440","https://openalex.org/W2948210185","https://openalex.org/W2948685905","https://openalex.org/W2953384591","https://openalex.org/W2963351448","https://openalex.org/W2966820236","https://openalex.org/W2968917279","https://openalex.org/W2972869264","https://openalex.org/W2974361506","https://openalex.org/W2979927758","https://openalex.org/W2997090102","https://openalex.org/W2998557912","https://openalex.org/W2999301272","https://openalex.org/W3014353624","https://openalex.org/W3020619771","https://openalex.org/W3022092973","https://openalex.org/W3035941285","https://openalex.org/W3081111549","https://openalex.org/W3094648158","https://openalex.org/W3098558149","https://openalex.org/W3125069671","https://openalex.org/W3128220181","https://openalex.org/W3135447553","https://openalex.org/W3160633377","https://openalex.org/W3164230720","https://openalex.org/W3167044851","https://openalex.org/W3168997536","https://openalex.org/W3174384244","https://openalex.org/W3175311671","https://openalex.org/W3182950653","https://openalex.org/W3192646885","https://openalex.org/W3204146347","https://openalex.org/W3206815816","https://openalex.org/W3207619483","https://openalex.org/W4200585179","https://openalex.org/W4206481248","https://openalex.org/W4212984122","https://openalex.org/W4220862900","https://openalex.org/W4220898925","https://openalex.org/W4224030538","https://openalex.org/W4224437581","https://openalex.org/W4224641883","https://openalex.org/W4226244379","https://openalex.org/W4226512186","https://openalex.org/W4280488276","https://openalex.org/W4287022992","https://openalex.org/W4292713924","https://openalex.org/W4293163051","https://openalex.org/W4300715911","https://openalex.org/W4308784174","https://openalex.org/W4312093785","https://openalex.org/W4313011320","https://openalex.org/W4313524270","https://openalex.org/W4313531407","https://openalex.org/W4313827473","https://openalex.org/W4317207118","https://openalex.org/W4318773815","https://openalex.org/W4318953389","https://openalex.org/W4319597459","https://openalex.org/W4327972770","https://openalex.org/W4362466198","https://openalex.org/W4362603432","https://openalex.org/W4376273098","https://openalex.org/W6629711637","https://openalex.org/W6713134421","https://openalex.org/W6757817989","https://openalex.org/W6767164110","https://openalex.org/W6800217721","https://openalex.org/W6848335571"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1980571360","https://openalex.org/W4249730947","https://openalex.org/W4237698013","https://openalex.org/W186124986","https://openalex.org/W2401657978","https://openalex.org/W4220767796","https://openalex.org/W2042797887","https://openalex.org/W3046286921","https://openalex.org/W4388065772","https://openalex.org/W2429379476"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Diabetic":[0],"Retinopathy":[1],"(DR)":[2],"is":[3,55,251],"a":[4,32,74,161,203,237],"result":[5],"of":[6,24,42,45,72,77,109,126,182,215,247,266,290,329,370],"prolonged":[7],"diabetes":[8,78],"with":[9,292,308],"poor":[10],"blood":[11],"sugar":[12],"management.":[13],"It":[14,337],"causes":[15],"vision":[16],"problems":[17],"and":[18,40,57,70,88,151,164,278,317,345,356,392],"blindness":[19],"due":[20],"to":[21,82,129,148,194,242,286,297,324,332,342,378,388],"the":[22,25,38,62,180,212,244,264,269,288,302,309,326,371],"deformation":[23],"human":[26],"retina.":[27],"Recently,":[28,111,160],"DR":[29,46,158,185,216,334],"has":[30,175,190,225,233,305],"become":[31],"crucial":[33,327],"medical":[34,383],"problem":[35],"that":[36,79],"affects":[37],"health":[39],"life":[41],"people.":[43],"Diagnosis":[44],"can":[47,80],"be":[48,379],"done":[49],"manually":[50],"by":[51],"ophthalmologists,":[52],"but":[53],"this":[54,152,199,261],"cumbersome":[56],"time":[58],"consuming":[59],"especially":[60],"in":[61,117,133,157,184,381],"current":[63],"overloaded":[64],"physician\u2019s":[65],"environment.":[66],"The":[67,188,223,231,319,368],"early":[68],"detection":[69],"prevention":[71],"DR,":[73],"severe":[75],"complication":[76],"lead":[81],"blindness,":[83],"require":[84],"an":[85,252],"automatic,":[86],"accurate,":[87,390],"personalized":[89],"machine":[90],"learning-based":[91],"method.":[92],"Various":[93],"deep":[94,207],"learning":[95,208],"algorithms,":[96],"particularly":[97],"convolutional":[98],"neural":[99],"networks":[100],"(CNNs),":[101],"have":[102,113,283],"been":[103,176,226,234,284,306],"investigated":[104],"for":[105,210,259,358,385],"detecting":[106,211],"different":[107,293],"stages":[108,214],"DR.":[110,299],"transformers":[112,122],"proved":[114],"their":[115],"capabilities":[116],"natural":[118],"language":[119],"processing.":[120],"Vision":[121],"(ViTs)":[123],"are":[124],"extensions":[125],"these":[127],"models":[128,348],"capture":[130,325],"long-range":[131],"dependencies":[132],"images,":[134],"which":[135,178],"achieved":[136,338],"better":[137],"results":[138,340,369],"than":[139],"CNN":[140,311,344],"models.":[141,197],"However,":[142],"ViT":[143,183,196,205,291,347,373],"always":[144],"needs":[145],"huge":[146],"datasets":[147],"learn":[149],"properly,":[150],"condition":[153],"reduced":[154],"its":[155],"applicability":[156],"domain.":[159,187],"new":[162,238],"real-world":[163],"large":[165],"fundus":[166,219],"image":[167],"dataset":[168],"called":[169,240],"fine-grained":[170],"annotated":[171],"diabetic":[172],"retinopathy":[173],"(FGADR)":[174],"released":[177],"supported":[179],"application":[181],"diagnosis":[186],"literature":[189],"not":[191],"explored":[192],"FGADR":[193,229,250],"optimize":[195],"In":[198,300],"paper,":[200],"we":[201,255],"propose":[202],"novel":[204],"based":[206,217],"pipeline":[209],"severity":[213,335],"on":[218],"photography-based":[220],"retina":[221],"images.":[222,248],"model":[224,232,304,321,374],"built":[227],"using":[228,236],"dataset.":[230],"optimized":[235],"optimizer":[239],"AdamW":[241],"detect":[243,298],"global":[245],"context":[246],"Because":[249],"imbalanced":[253],"dataset,":[254],"combine":[256],"several":[257],"techniques":[258,296],"handling":[260],"issue":[262],"including":[263],"usage":[265],"F1-score":[267],"as":[268,314],"optimization":[270],"metric,":[271],"data":[272,294],"augmentation,":[273],"class":[274],"weights,":[275],"label":[276],"smoothing,":[277],"focal":[279],"loss.":[280],"Extensive":[281],"experiments":[282],"conducted":[285],"explore":[287],"role":[289],"balancing":[295],"addition,":[301],"proposed":[303,372],"compared":[307,341],"state-of-the-art":[310],"algorithms":[312],"such":[313],"ResNet50,":[315],"Incep-tionV3,":[316],"VGG19.":[318],"adopted":[320],"was":[322],"able":[323],"features":[328],"retinal":[330],"images":[331],"understand":[333],"better.":[336],"superior":[339],"other":[343],"baseline":[346],"(i.e.,":[349],"0.825,":[350,351,354,355],"0.826,":[352],"0.964,":[353],"0.956":[357],"F1-score,":[359],"accuracy,":[360,362],"balanced":[361],"AUC,":[363],"precision,":[364],"recall,":[365],"specificity,":[366],"respectively).":[367],"were":[375],"quite":[376],"encouraging":[377],"applied":[380],"real":[382],"environment":[384],"assisting":[386],"physicians":[387],"make":[389],"personalized,":[391],"timely":[393],"decisions.":[394]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":30},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":75},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":23}],"updated_date":"2026-06-03T09:05:47.796612","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}