{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4387546817","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3323927","title":"Tabular-to-Image Transformations for the Classification of Anonymous Network Traffic Using Deep Residual Networks","display_name":"Tabular-to-Image Transformations for the Classification of Anonymous Network Traffic Using Deep Residual Networks","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4387546817","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3323927"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3323927","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3323927","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10278393.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10278393.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053242696","display_name":"Nathan Briner","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6529-5493"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1354457","display_name":"Colorado Mesa University","ror":"https://ror.org/0451s5g67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Nathan Briner","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6529-5493","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5064937177","display_name":"Drake Cullen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0000-8307"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1354457","display_name":"Colorado Mesa University","ror":"https://ror.org/0451s5g67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Drake Cullen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0000-8307","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5035354090","display_name":"James R. Halladay","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1354457","display_name":"Colorado Mesa University","ror":"https://ror.org/0451s5g67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"James Halladay","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1804-3263","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076828151","display_name":"Darrin Miller","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0006-4977-0809"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1354457","display_name":"Colorado Mesa University","ror":"https://ror.org/0451s5g67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Darrin Miller","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5093046489","display_name":"Riley Primeau","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1354457","display_name":"Colorado Mesa University","ror":"https://ror.org/0451s5g67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Riley Primeau","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102954228","display_name":"Abraham Avila","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-9386-5232"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1354457","display_name":"Colorado Mesa University","ror":"https://ror.org/0451s5g67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Abraham Avila","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-9386-5232","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008429900","display_name":"Ram B. Basnet","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6864-6893"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1354457","display_name":"Colorado Mesa University","ror":"https://ror.org/0451s5g67","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ram Basnet","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6864-6893","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Colorado Mesa University (CMU), Grand Junction, CO, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5017704287","display_name":"Tenzin Doleck","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1279-689X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I18014758","display_name":"Simon Fraser University","ror":"https://ror.org/0213rcc28","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I18014758"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tenzin Doleck","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Education, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1279-689X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Education, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I18014758"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":8,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5053242696"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1354457"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":1.8536,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":11,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.88490947,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"11","issue":null,"first_page":"113100","last_page":"113113"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":0.9987999796867371,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11598","display_name":"Internet Traffic Analysis and Secure E-voting","score":0.9987999796867371,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11652","display_name":"Imbalanced Data Classification Techniques","score":0.9861999750137329,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9704999923706055,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7643020153045654},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7087390422821045},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/residual","display_name":"Residual","score":0.653110682964325},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.6263431310653687},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.6200565099716187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.6005679368972778},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/support-vector-machine","display_name":"Support vector machine","score":0.5330936312675476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/contextual-image-classification","display_name":"Contextual image classification","score":0.5179430842399597},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.4798388183116913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.43987682461738586},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/traffic-classification","display_name":"Traffic classification","score":0.43317484855651855},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-mining","display_name":"Data mining","score":0.43203648924827576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encoding","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","score":0.4254327118396759},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.3779311776161194},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.10563299059867859}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7643020153045654},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7087390422821045},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155512373","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287450","display_name":"Residual","level":2,"score":0.653110682964325},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.6263431310653687},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.6200565099716187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.6005679368972778},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.5330936312675476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75294576","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165192","display_name":"Contextual image classification","level":3,"score":0.5179430842399597},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.4798388183116913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.43987682461738586},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169988225","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7832484","display_name":"Traffic classification","level":3,"score":0.43317484855651855},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.43203648924827576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125411270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18653","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","level":2,"score":0.4254327118396759},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.3779311776161194},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.10563299059867859},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136764020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466","display_name":"World Wide Web","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110875604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75","display_name":"The Internet","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3323927","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3323927","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10278393.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:503480575c7f4325bd4a01832c18f2f3","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/503480575c7f4325bd4a01832c18f2f3","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 11, Pp 113100-113113 (2023)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2023.3323927","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3323927","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10278393.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4387546817.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4387546817.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":43,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1849277567","https://openalex.org/W2094522125","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2302255633","https://openalex.org/W2330219538","https://openalex.org/W2343828539","https://openalex.org/W2591712613","https://openalex.org/W2766315530","https://openalex.org/W2797862164","https://openalex.org/W2810781769","https://openalex.org/W2900774199","https://openalex.org/W2914264342","https://openalex.org/W2960362180","https://openalex.org/W2964962196","https://openalex.org/W2982682021","https://openalex.org/W3007107273","https://openalex.org/W3021418997","https://openalex.org/W3032465393","https://openalex.org/W3041133507","https://openalex.org/W3090709119","https://openalex.org/W3093709505","https://openalex.org/W3136205675","https://openalex.org/W3140854437","https://openalex.org/W3165390445","https://openalex.org/W3177990660","https://openalex.org/W3194177068","https://openalex.org/W3196929580","https://openalex.org/W4213219213","https://openalex.org/W4214750139","https://openalex.org/W4280518408","https://openalex.org/W4280573290","https://openalex.org/W4280603293","https://openalex.org/W4282021766","https://openalex.org/W4285260954","https://openalex.org/W4296229353","https://openalex.org/W4313005202","https://openalex.org/W4313036554","https://openalex.org/W6750545528","https://openalex.org/W6752732804","https://openalex.org/W6756599296","https://openalex.org/W6800711859","https://openalex.org/W6906753040","https://openalex.org/W6945354692"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2952813363","https://openalex.org/W4378678253","https://openalex.org/W2911497689","https://openalex.org/W4360783045","https://openalex.org/W2770149305","https://openalex.org/W2972076240","https://openalex.org/W3167930666","https://openalex.org/W3014952856","https://openalex.org/W2964843961","https://openalex.org/W3010730661"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"With":[0],"the":[1,58,81,128,148,176,204],"meteoric":[2],"rise":[3],"in":[4,17,52,127],"anonymous":[5,88,155],"network":[6,28,89,132,156],"traffic":[7,18,29,90],"data,":[8,40],"there":[9],"is":[10],"a":[11,162],"considerable":[12],"need":[13],"for":[14,66,85,108],"effective":[15,83],"automation":[16],"identification":[19],"tasks.":[20],"Though":[21],"many":[22],"shallow":[23,150],"and":[24,116,118,175,193,199],"deep":[25,68,97,139,166],"machine":[26],"learning":[27,98],"classification":[30,129],"solutions":[31],"have":[32,56],"been":[33],"proposed,":[34],"they":[35],"often":[36],"rely":[37],"on":[38,101,143,170,184,203],"tabular":[39,62,87,185],"making":[41],"them":[42],"unable":[43],"to":[44],"detect":[45],"complex":[46],"spatial":[47,77],"relationships.":[48],"However,":[49],"recent":[50],"advancements":[51],"computer":[53],"processing":[54],"power":[55],"increased":[57],"viability":[59],"of":[60,130,165,197,206],"transforming":[61,72],"data":[63,74,91,102,145],"into":[64,76],"images":[65],"training":[67],"convolutional":[69],"neural":[70],"networks,":[71],"structured":[73],"problems":[75],"ones.":[78],"To":[79],"identify":[80],"most":[82],"methods":[84],"representing":[86],"as":[92],"images,":[93],"we":[94,136],"compared":[95],"five":[96],"classifiers":[99],"trained":[100,142,169,183,190],"from":[103],"different":[104],"tabular-to-image":[105,144],"algorithms\u2013Image":[106],"Generator":[107],"Tabular":[109],"Data":[110],"(IGTD),":[111],"DeepInsight,":[112],"vector-of-feature":[113],"wrapping":[114],"(normalized":[115],"non-normalized),":[117],"our":[119],"newly":[120],"introduced":[121],"Binary":[122,178],"Image":[123,179],"Encoding":[124,180],"(BIE)":[125],"technique":[126],"eight":[131],"application":[133],"types.":[134],"Furthermore,":[135],"examine":[137],"whether":[138],"residual":[140,167],"models":[141,189],"can":[146],"outperform":[147],"top-performing":[149],"learner,":[151],"XGBoost,":[152],"at":[153],"classifying":[154],"traffic.":[157],"We":[158],"found":[159],"that":[160],"ResNet-50,":[161],"pre-trained":[163],"instance":[164],"network,":[168],"image":[171],"datasets":[172],"using":[173,191],"IGTD":[174,192],"novel":[177],"outperformed":[181],"XGBoost":[182],"data.":[186],"Our":[187],"ResNet-50":[188],"BIE":[194],"achieved":[195,208],"F1-scores":[196],"96.0%":[198],"98.49%":[200],"respectively,":[201],"improving":[202],"baseline":[205],"95.1%":[207],"by":[209],"XGBoost.":[210]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}