{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4285256213","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2022.3176965","title":"Multimodal Classification of Onion Services for Proactive Cyber Threat Intelligence Using Explainable Deep Learning","display_name":"Multimodal Classification of Onion Services for Proactive Cyber Threat Intelligence Using Explainable Deep Learning","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4285256213","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2022.3176965"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2022.3176965","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2022.3176965","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/09779740.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","datacite","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/09779740.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060827010","display_name":"Harsha Moraliyage","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6212-8312"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I196829312","display_name":"La Trobe University","ror":"https://ror.org/01rxfrp27","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Harsha Moraliyage","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053158424","display_name":"Vidura Sumanasena","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1504-8559"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I196829312","display_name":"La Trobe University","ror":"https://ror.org/01rxfrp27","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vidura Sumanasena","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5064845769","display_name":"Daswin De Silva","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3878-5969"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I196829312","display_name":"La Trobe University","ror":"https://ror.org/01rxfrp27","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Daswin De Silva","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025594861","display_name":"Rashmika Nawaratne","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6641-2153"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I196829312","display_name":"La Trobe University","ror":"https://ror.org/01rxfrp27","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rashmika Nawaratne","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053106466","display_name":"Lina Sun","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I196829312","display_name":"La Trobe University","ror":"https://ror.org/01rxfrp27","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lina Sun","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008490552","display_name":"Damminda Alahakoon","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3291-888X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I196829312","display_name":"La Trobe University","ror":"https://ror.org/01rxfrp27","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Damminda Alahakoon","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Centre for Data Analytics and Cognition, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5060827010"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I196829312"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":6.3776,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":24,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.96632871,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"10","issue":null,"first_page":"56044","last_page":"56056"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12519","display_name":"Cybercrime and Law Enforcement Studies","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12519","display_name":"Cybercrime and Law Enforcement Studies","score":0.9986000061035156,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11644","display_name":"Spam and Phishing Detection","score":0.9952999949455261,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11241","display_name":"Advanced Malware Detection Techniques","score":0.9927999973297119,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8059985637664795},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6076242923736572},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variety","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","score":0.563069224357605},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.5588675737380981},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.5131045579910278},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.5098990201950073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/service","display_name":"Service (business)","score":0.4920629858970642},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/class","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","score":0.4900556802749634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/web-service","display_name":"Web service","score":0.4801468253135681},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.47538578510284424},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/word-embedding","display_name":"Word embedding","score":0.4699454605579376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embedding","display_name":"Embedding","score":0.3420392870903015},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.28385525941848755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/world-wide-web","display_name":"World Wide Web","score":0.23298707604408264}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8059985637664795},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6076242923736572},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136197465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1729295","display_name":"Variety (cybernetics)","level":2,"score":0.563069224357605},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.5588675737380981},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.5131045579910278},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.5098990201950073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780378061","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25351891","display_name":"Service (business)","level":2,"score":0.4920629858970642},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777212361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5127848","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.4900556802749634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C35578498","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193424","display_name":"Web service","level":2,"score":0.4801468253135681},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.47538578510284424},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777462759","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18395344","display_name":"Word embedding","level":3,"score":0.4699454605579376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41608201","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q980509","display_name":"Embedding","level":2,"score":0.3420392870903015},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.28385525941848755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136764020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466","display_name":"World Wide Web","level":1,"score":0.23298707604408264},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136264566","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159810","display_name":"Economy","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":5,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2022.3176965","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2022.3176965","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/09779740.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:doi:10.26181/20002454","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4406922384","display_name":"Open MIND","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Journal contribution"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:dca83c715a1b4330885fd1db2f53f8cb","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/dca83c715a1b4330885fd1db2f53f8cb","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 10, Pp 56044-56056 (2022)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:figshare.com:article/20002454","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Multimodal_Classification_of_Onion_Services_for_Proactive_Cyber_Threat_Intelligence_Using_Explainable_Deep_Learning/20002454","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196282","display_name":"Figshare","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210132348","host_organization_name":"Figshare (United Kingdom)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132348"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"doi:10.26181/20002454.v2","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.26181/20002454.v2","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407052018","display_name":"La Trobe University","issn_l":null,"issn":[],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":null,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article-journal"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2022.3176965","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2022.3176965","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/09779740.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8100000023841858,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4285256213.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4285256213.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":62,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1855811457","https://openalex.org/W1916445035","https://openalex.org/W1968832971","https://openalex.org/W2013970953","https://openalex.org/W2067223933","https://openalex.org/W2105482032","https://openalex.org/W2107560831","https://openalex.org/W2136848157","https://openalex.org/W2151723205","https://openalex.org/W2159243025","https://openalex.org/W2250539671","https://openalex.org/W2253429366","https://openalex.org/W2295107390","https://openalex.org/W2493916176","https://openalex.org/W2533698187","https://openalex.org/W2554200766","https://openalex.org/W2597655663","https://openalex.org/W2616247523","https://openalex.org/W2739349903","https://openalex.org/W2741026990","https://openalex.org/W2744692361","https://openalex.org/W2745867207","https://openalex.org/W2776601846","https://openalex.org/W2783245716","https://openalex.org/W2787873795","https://openalex.org/W2791710883","https://openalex.org/W2799116291","https://openalex.org/W2804839948","https://openalex.org/W2884001105","https://openalex.org/W2885952916","https://openalex.org/W2887280559","https://openalex.org/W2892137778","https://openalex.org/W2907473789","https://openalex.org/W2908954810","https://openalex.org/W2914717471","https://openalex.org/W2948546763","https://openalex.org/W2962949934","https://openalex.org/W2963980822","https://openalex.org/W2964016673","https://openalex.org/W2966109109","https://openalex.org/W2968758005","https://openalex.org/W3011602123","https://openalex.org/W3013022628","https://openalex.org/W3046800239","https://openalex.org/W3081802893","https://openalex.org/W3086302916","https://openalex.org/W3102564565","https://openalex.org/W3193401031","https://openalex.org/W3208624098","https://openalex.org/W4221075219","https://openalex.org/W4221113537","https://openalex.org/W4226441225","https://openalex.org/W4367858557","https://openalex.org/W6631190155","https://openalex.org/W6636510571","https://openalex.org/W6683512859","https://openalex.org/W6686207219","https://openalex.org/W6732245051","https://openalex.org/W6735377749","https://openalex.org/W6750437431","https://openalex.org/W6758993734","https://openalex.org/W6766140863"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4312417841","https://openalex.org/W4321369474","https://openalex.org/W2731899572","https://openalex.org/W3133861977","https://openalex.org/W4200173597","https://openalex.org/W3116150086","https://openalex.org/W2999805992","https://openalex.org/W4380075502","https://openalex.org/W4291897433","https://openalex.org/W4223943233"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"dark":[1,177],"web":[2],"has":[3],"been":[4],"confronted":[5],"with":[6,117,128],"a":[7,89,124],"significant":[8],"increase":[9],"in":[10,36,60,166,175],"the":[11,26,30,72,81,105,133,143,152,162,176],"number":[12],"and":[13,20,25,39,66,107,123,141],"variety":[14],"of":[15,18,29,44,80,110,136,146,156,164],"onion":[16,68,101,148],"services":[17,69,102],"illegitimate":[19],"criminal":[21],"intent.":[22],"Anonymity,":[23],"encryption,":[24],"technical":[27],"complexity":[28],"Tor":[31],"network":[32],"are":[33,132],"key":[34],"challenges":[35],"detecting,":[37],"disabling,":[38],"regulating":[40],"such":[41],"services.":[42],"Instead":[43],"tracking":[45],"an":[46,78,147],"operational":[47],"location,":[48],"cyber":[49,172],"threat":[50,173],"intelligence":[51,174],"can":[52],"become":[53],"more":[54],"proactive":[55,171],"by":[56],"utilizing":[57],"recent":[58],"advances":[59],"Artificial":[61],"Intelligence":[62],"(AI)":[63],"to":[64],"detect":[65],"classify":[67,140],"based":[70,94,103],"on":[71,95,104],"content,":[73],"as":[74,76,159,161],"well":[75,160],"provide":[77],"interpretation":[79],"classification":[82,92,154],"outcome.":[83],"In":[84],"this":[85,137,157],"paper,":[86],"we":[87],"propose":[88],"novel":[90],"multimodal":[91],"approach":[93,138,158],"explainable":[96],"deep":[97],"learning":[98],"that":[99,139,168],"classifies":[100],"image":[106],"text":[108],"content":[109],"each":[111],"site.":[112],"A":[113],"Convolutional":[114],"Neural":[115],"Network":[116],"Gradient-weighted":[118],"Class":[119],"Activation":[120],"Mapping":[121],"(Grad-CAM)":[122],"pre-trained":[125],"word":[126],"embedding":[127],"Bahdanau":[129],"additive":[130],"attention":[131],"core":[134],"capabilities":[135],"contextualize":[142],"representative":[144],"features":[145],"service.":[149],"We":[150],"demonstrate":[151],"superior":[153],"accuracy":[155],"role":[163],"explainability":[165],"decision-making":[167],"collectively":[169],"enables":[170],"web.":[178]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-04-04T16:13:02.066488","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}