{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4205667984","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3138051","title":"AI-Powered In-Vehicle Passenger Monitoring Using Low-Cost mm-Wave Radar","display_name":"AI-Powered In-Vehicle Passenger Monitoring Using Low-Cost mm-Wave Radar","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-12-30","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4205667984","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3138051"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2021.3138051","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3138051","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/9668973/09666842.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/9668973/09666842.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5073536464","display_name":"Hajar Abedi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4089-0373"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I151746483","display_name":"University of Waterloo","ror":"https://ror.org/01aff2v68","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Hajar Abedi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5057199076","display_name":"Shenghang Luo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9195-7016"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141945490","display_name":"University of British Columbia","ror":"https://ror.org/03rmrcq20","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141945490"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shenghang Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141945490"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083368548","display_name":"Vishvam Mazumdar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1922-1236"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I151746483","display_name":"University of Waterloo","ror":"https://ror.org/01aff2v68","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vishvam Mazumdar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5073123347","display_name":"Michael M.Y.R. Riad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3127-2186"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I151746483","display_name":"University of Waterloo","ror":"https://ror.org/01aff2v68","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michael M. Y. R. Riad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060296994","display_name":"George Shaker","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1450-2138"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I151746483","display_name":"University of Waterloo","ror":"https://ror.org/01aff2v68","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"George Shaker","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada","Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5073536464"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I151746483"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":2.9616,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":49,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.91590543,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"10","issue":null,"first_page":"18998","last_page":"19012"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11196","display_name":"Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11196","display_name":"Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring","score":0.9975000023841858,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10326","display_name":"Indoor and Outdoor Localization Technologies","score":0.9973999857902527,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10860","display_name":"Speech and Audio Processing","score":0.994700014591217,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/support-vector-machine","display_name":"Support vector machine","score":0.7820920348167419},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7233409285545349},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.6446782946586609},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/radar","display_name":"Radar","score":0.6390317678451538},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.5877972841262817},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-forest","display_name":"Random forest","score":0.5829775333404541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multiclass-classification","display_name":"Multiclass classification","score":0.5325457453727722},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.49440932273864746},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/classifier","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","score":0.4644359052181244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/binary-classification","display_name":"Binary classification","score":0.45718643069267273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/k-nearest-neighbors-algorithm","display_name":"k-nearest neighbors algorithm","score":0.42398524284362793},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.4213234782218933}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.7820920348167419},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7233409285545349},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6446782946586609},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554190296","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47528","display_name":"Radar","level":2,"score":0.6390317678451538},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.5877972841262817},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.5829775333404541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123860398","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6934605","display_name":"Multiclass classification","level":3,"score":0.5325457453727722},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.49440932273864746},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95623464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096149","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","level":2,"score":0.4644359052181244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66905080","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17005494","display_name":"Binary classification","level":3,"score":0.45718643069267273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113238511","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071612","display_name":"k-nearest neighbors algorithm","level":2,"score":0.42398524284362793},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4213234782218933},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2021.3138051","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3138051","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/9668973/09666842.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:01d5d90be7c84965b220e970cb471c9f","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/01d5d90be7c84965b220e970cb471c9f","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 10, Pp 18998-19012 (2022)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2021.3138051","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3138051","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/9668973/09666842.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334593","display_name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","ror":"https://ror.org/01h531d29"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4205667984.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4205667984.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":31,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1560724230","https://openalex.org/W1964161928","https://openalex.org/W1978905317","https://openalex.org/W1991798049","https://openalex.org/W2002573916","https://openalex.org/W2023220113","https://openalex.org/W2042322506","https://openalex.org/W2066218102","https://openalex.org/W2160361467","https://openalex.org/W2166117654","https://openalex.org/W2202433167","https://openalex.org/W2286278699","https://openalex.org/W2295124130","https://openalex.org/W2414121602","https://openalex.org/W2420128470","https://openalex.org/W2504431707","https://openalex.org/W2559112678","https://openalex.org/W2623298060","https://openalex.org/W2726539575","https://openalex.org/W2757343256","https://openalex.org/W2807894089","https://openalex.org/W2810528866","https://openalex.org/W2897359305","https://openalex.org/W2918660040","https://openalex.org/W2941074488","https://openalex.org/W2967190791","https://openalex.org/W3048083751","https://openalex.org/W3083341564","https://openalex.org/W3103984870","https://openalex.org/W3159614872","https://openalex.org/W4248932112"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2889302474","https://openalex.org/W4376528628","https://openalex.org/W2924823884","https://openalex.org/W1537592868","https://openalex.org/W2470590370","https://openalex.org/W3011239835","https://openalex.org/W3207192536","https://openalex.org/W2910954186","https://openalex.org/W4200234001","https://openalex.org/W1748436461"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"We":[0,91,102],"propose":[1],"a":[2,10,22,31,61,76,89,174],"novel":[3],"algorithm":[4],"to":[5,49,79,158,186],"identify":[6],"occupied":[7],"seats":[8],"in":[9,88,117,143,148],"motor":[11],"vehicle,":[12],"i.e.,":[13],"the":[14,36,71,81,145,160,171,189],"number":[15,82],"of":[16,29,83,119,141,162,173,194],"occupants":[17,84],"and":[18,38,41,85,99,113,121,127,152,179,192],"their":[19,86],"positions,":[20],"using":[21,30,133],"frequency":[23],"modulated":[24],"continuous":[25],"wave":[26],"radar.":[27],"Instead":[28],"high-resolution":[32],"radar,":[33],"which":[34],"increases":[35],"cost":[37],"device":[39],"size,":[40],"performing":[42],"complex":[43],"signal":[44],"processing":[45],"with":[46,60],"several":[47],"variables":[48],"be":[50],"tuned":[51],"for":[52,124,182],"each":[53],"scenario,":[54],"we":[55,74,169],"integrate":[56],"machine":[57,77,108],"learning":[58],"algorithms":[59],"low-cost":[62],"radar":[63],"system.":[64],"Based":[65],"on":[66],"heat":[67],"maps":[68],"obtained":[69],"from":[70],"Capon":[72],"beamformer,":[73],"train":[75],"classifier":[78,136],"predict":[80],"positions":[87],"vehicle.":[90],"follow":[92],"two":[93],"different":[94],"classification":[95,98,151,154],"methods:":[96],"multiclass":[97,150],"binary":[100,153],"classification.":[101],"compare":[103],"three":[104],"classifiers:":[105],"support":[106],"vector":[107],"(SVM),":[109],"K-Nearest":[110],"Neighbors":[111],"(KNN),":[112],"Random":[114],"Forest":[115],"(RF),":[116],"terms":[118],"accuracy":[120,140,193],"computational":[122],"complexity":[123],"both":[125,149],"testing":[126],"training":[128],"sets.":[129],"Our":[130],"proposed":[131,164,196],"system":[132],"an":[134,138],"SVM":[135],"achieved":[137],"overall":[139],"97%":[142],"classifying":[144],"defined":[146],"scenarios":[147],"methods.":[155],"In":[156],"addition,":[157],"show":[159],"effectiveness":[161],"our":[163,195],"in-vehicle":[165,197],"occupancy":[166,183,198],"detection":[167,199],"method,":[168],"provide":[170],"results":[172],"commonly":[175],"available":[176],"people":[177],"counting":[178],"tracking":[180],"method":[181,200],"detection.":[184],"Compared":[185],"common":[187],"methods,":[188],"effectiveness,":[190],"robustness,":[191],"are":[201],"demonstrated.":[202]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":11},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":7}],"updated_date":"2026-03-29T08:15:47.926485","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
