{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2925152235","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2904181","title":"Applicability and Appropriateness of Distributed Ledgers Consensus Protocols in Public and Private Sectors: A Systematic Review","display_name":"Applicability and Appropriateness of Distributed Ledgers Consensus Protocols in Public and Private Sectors: A Systematic Review","publication_year":2019,"publication_date":"2019-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2925152235","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2904181","mag":"2925152235"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2019.2904181","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2904181","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/8600701/08672572.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"review","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/8600701/08672572.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5057290569","display_name":"Ali Shahaab","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4646-4551"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8408910","display_name":"Cardiff Metropolitan University","ror":"https://ror.org/00bqvf857","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"A. Shahaab","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, U.K","Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, CF5 2YB, U.K"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4646-4551","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, CF5 2YB, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077577621","display_name":"B. Lidgey","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210143693","display_name":"TRC Companies (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/055ryq086","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210143693"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79510175","display_name":"Cardiff University","ror":"https://ror.org/03kk7td41","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79510175"]}],"countries":["GB","US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"B. Lidgey","raw_affiliation_strings":["Companies House, Cardiff, U.K","Companies House, Cardiff, CF14 3UZ, U.K"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Companies House, Cardiff, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210143693"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Companies House, Cardiff, CF14 3UZ, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79510175"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5043570519","display_name":"Chaminda Hewage","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7593-6661"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8408910","display_name":"Cardiff Metropolitan University","ror":"https://ror.org/00bqvf857","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"C. Hewage","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, U.K","Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, CF5 2YB, U.K"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7593-6661","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, CF5 2YB, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055984147","display_name":"Imtiaz Khan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7624-1319"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8408910","display_name":"Cardiff Metropolitan University","ror":"https://ror.org/00bqvf857","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"I. Khan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, U.K","Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, CF5 2YB, U.K"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cardiff School of Technologies, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, CF5 2YB, U.K","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5057290569"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":17.2781,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":79,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99113366,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"7","issue":null,"first_page":"43622","last_page":"43636"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10772","display_name":"Distributed systems and fault tolerance","score":0.9962999820709229,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10273","display_name":"IoT and Edge/Fog Computing","score":0.9909999966621399,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ledger","display_name":"Ledger","score":0.8249659538269043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/distributed-ledger","display_name":"Distributed ledger","score":0.823326587677002},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/protocol","display_name":"Protocol (science)","score":0.7022467851638794},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6554221510887146},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptocurrency","display_name":"Cryptocurrency","score":0.6091545820236206},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/public-sector","display_name":"Public sector","score":0.5538297891616821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/private-sector","display_name":"Private sector","score":0.528983473777771},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/representation","display_name":"Representation (politics)","score":0.4697057902812958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/silver-bullet","display_name":"Silver bullet","score":0.4583245515823364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.34213095903396606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.3362942337989807},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/accounting","display_name":"Accounting","score":0.3072940707206726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain","display_name":"Blockchain","score":0.258355975151062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/business","display_name":"Business","score":0.1838591992855072},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/political-science","display_name":"Political science","score":0.12296661734580994},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medicine","display_name":"Medicine","score":0.08987763524055481}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C91302708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2732056","display_name":"Ledger","level":2,"score":0.8249659538269043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777541363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25110971","display_name":"Distributed ledger","level":3,"score":0.823326587677002},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780385302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367158","display_name":"Protocol (science)","level":3,"score":0.7022467851638794},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6554221510887146},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180706569","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13479982","display_name":"Cryptocurrency","level":2,"score":0.6091545820236206},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C147859227","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q294217","display_name":"Public sector","level":2,"score":0.5538297891616821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121426985","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q591763","display_name":"Private sector","level":2,"score":0.528983473777771},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776359362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2145286","display_name":"Representation (politics)","level":3,"score":0.4697057902812958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776088982","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q841402","display_name":"Silver bullet","level":2,"score":0.4583245515823364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.34213095903396606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.3362942337989807},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121955636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4116214","display_name":"Accounting","level":1,"score":0.3072940707206726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.258355975151062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.1838591992855072},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.12296661734580994},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.08987763524055481},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94625758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7163","display_name":"Politics","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19165224","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23404","display_name":"Anthropology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142724271","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7208","display_name":"Pathology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204787440","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188504","display_name":"Alternative medicine","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2019.2904181","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2904181","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/8600701/08672572.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:bc9f9d9a725b4752bc0b6719e95d58aa","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/bc9f9d9a725b4752bc0b6719e95d58aa","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 7, Pp 43622-43636 (2019)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:figshare.com:article/19306874","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Applicability_and_Appropriateness_of_Distributed_Ledgers_Consensus_Protocols_in_Public_and_Private_Sectors_A_Systematic_Review/19306874","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196282","display_name":"Figshare","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210132348","host_organization_name":"Figshare (United Kingdom)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132348"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:repository.cardiffmet.ac.uk:10369/10676","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/10369/10676","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401326","display_name":"Cardiff Metropolitan Research Repository (Cardiff Metropolitan University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I8408910","host_organization_name":"Cardiff Metropolitan University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8408910"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2019.2904181","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2904181","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/8600701/08672572.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/17","display_name":"Partnerships for the goals","score":0.49000000953674316}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320316111","display_name":"Llywodraeth Cymru","ror":"https://ror.org/000wh6t45"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2925152235.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2925152235.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":68,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W192446467","https://openalex.org/W1250209992","https://openalex.org/W1533905858","https://openalex.org/W1536454040","https://openalex.org/W1551814240","https://openalex.org/W1581121707","https://openalex.org/W1601379374","https://openalex.org/W1978649650","https://openalex.org/W1992479210","https://openalex.org/W1997911919","https://openalex.org/W2003214215","https://openalex.org/W2035362408","https://openalex.org/W2110880385","https://openalex.org/W2114579022","https://openalex.org/W2116820549","https://openalex.org/W2142863519","https://openalex.org/W2156580773","https://openalex.org/W2183126124","https://openalex.org/W2223076221","https://openalex.org/W2295318496","https://openalex.org/W2335755599","https://openalex.org/W2534313446","https://openalex.org/W2555456100","https://openalex.org/W2567666263","https://openalex.org/W2594834126","https://openalex.org/W2601306580","https://openalex.org/W2717184009","https://openalex.org/W2725542890","https://openalex.org/W2739845435","https://openalex.org/W2751179194","https://openalex.org/W2754529701","https://openalex.org/W2758039286","https://openalex.org/W2762888877","https://openalex.org/W2766209351","https://openalex.org/W2766800499","https://openalex.org/W2767453162","https://openalex.org/W2767855054","https://openalex.org/W2774627213","https://openalex.org/W2787789774","https://openalex.org/W2790414559","https://openalex.org/W2794647042","https://openalex.org/W2801811971","https://openalex.org/W2803371618","https://openalex.org/W2805930283","https://openalex.org/W2810807736","https://openalex.org/W2963507231","https://openalex.org/W2963997141","https://openalex.org/W2972483557","https://openalex.org/W3137092842","https://openalex.org/W3206434084","https://openalex.org/W4248175462","https://openalex.org/W4295720133","https://openalex.org/W4297669678","https://openalex.org/W6607881844","https://openalex.org/W6628136156","https://openalex.org/W6635765730","https://openalex.org/W6648576785","https://openalex.org/W6682904396","https://openalex.org/W6686169942","https://openalex.org/W6688765248","https://openalex.org/W6735893493","https://openalex.org/W6740384779","https://openalex.org/W6741928516","https://openalex.org/W6749548732","https://openalex.org/W6767887652","https://openalex.org/W6929406701","https://openalex.org/W6941528023","https://openalex.org/W7073610428"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3038176961","https://openalex.org/W4226088185","https://openalex.org/W3005980542","https://openalex.org/W4298013519","https://openalex.org/W2810405473","https://openalex.org/W2949445060","https://openalex.org/W4224952008","https://openalex.org/W2800938687","https://openalex.org/W3135632358","https://openalex.org/W4387932618"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Advancement":[0],"of":[1],"consensus":[2,28],"protocols":[3,29,62],"in":[4,19,69],"recent":[5],"years":[6],"has":[7],"enabled":[8],"distributed":[9],"ledger":[10],"technologies":[11],"(DLTs)":[12],"to":[13,73],"find":[14],"its":[15],"application":[16],"and":[17,30,35,53,66,94],"value":[18],"sectors":[20],"beyond":[21],"cryptocurrencies.":[22],"Here":[23],"we":[24,47],"reviewed":[25],"66":[26],"known":[27],"classified":[31],"them":[32],"into":[33],"philosophical":[34],"architectural":[36],"categories,":[37],"also":[38,59],"providing":[39],"a":[40,44,70,82],"visual":[41],"representation.":[42],"As":[43],"case":[45],"study,":[46],"focus":[48],"on":[49],"the":[50,91],"public":[51],"sector":[52,67,92],"highlighted":[54],"potential":[55],"protocols.":[56],"We":[57,76],"have":[58],"listed":[60],"these":[61],"against":[63],"basic":[64],"features":[65],"preference":[68],"tabular":[71],"format":[72],"facilitate":[74],"selection.":[75],"argue":[77],"that":[78],"no":[79],"protocol":[80],"is":[81],"silver":[83],"bullet,":[84],"therefore":[85],"should":[86],"be":[87],"selected":[88],"carefully,":[89],"considering":[90],"requirements":[93],"environment.":[95]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":11},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":13},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":20},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-06T09:05:17.133730","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}