{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2336861552","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2016.2555759","title":"Using Modeling and Simulation to Study Photon Number Splitting Attacks","display_name":"Using Modeling and Simulation to Study Photon Number Splitting Attacks","publication_year":2016,"publication_date":"2016-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2336861552","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2016.2555759","mag":"2336861552"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2016.2555759","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2016.2555759","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/7419931/07456202.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/7419931/07456202.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054909769","display_name":"Logan O. Mailloux","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7034-8083"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55061410","display_name":"U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/03f9f1d95","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1294991024","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I2802362820","https://openalex.org/I4210089612","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I55061410"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Logan O. Mailloux","raw_affiliation_strings":["Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7034-8083","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55061410"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083395017","display_name":"Douglas D. Hodson","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2679-2213"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55061410","display_name":"U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/03f9f1d95","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1294991024","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I2802362820","https://openalex.org/I4210089612","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I55061410"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Douglas D. Hodson","raw_affiliation_strings":["Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55061410"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5078299741","display_name":"Michael R. Grimaila","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8355-7992"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55061410","display_name":"U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/03f9f1d95","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1294991024","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I2802362820","https://openalex.org/I4210089612","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I55061410"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michael R. Grimaila","raw_affiliation_strings":["Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55061410"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019966021","display_name":"Ryan Engle","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55061410","display_name":"U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/03f9f1d95","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1294991024","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I2802362820","https://openalex.org/I4210089612","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I4210102105","https://openalex.org/I55061410"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ryan D. Engle","raw_affiliation_strings":["Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55061410"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111478292","display_name":"Colin V. McLaughlin","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1288214837","display_name":"United States Naval Research Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/04d23a975","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1288214837","https://openalex.org/I1330347796","https://openalex.org/I175003984","https://openalex.org/I3130687028"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Colin V. Mclaughlin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1288214837"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005723180","display_name":"Gerald Baumgartner","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6658-0864"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210100297","display_name":"Institute for Telecommunication Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/00mj5bc69","country_code":"US","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1343035065","https://openalex.org/I4210100297","https://openalex.org/I4387155216"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gerald B. Baumgartner","raw_affiliation_strings":["Laboratory for Telecommunications Sciences, College Park, MD, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Laboratory for Telecommunications Sciences, College Park, MD, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210100297"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5054909769"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55061410"],"apc_list":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"apc_paid":{"value":1850,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1850},"fwci":3.9761,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":38,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94279532,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"4","issue":null,"first_page":"2188","last_page":"2197"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10622","display_name":"Quantum Mechanics and Applications","score":0.996399998664856,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3107","display_name":"Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11414","display_name":"Quantum optics and atomic interactions","score":0.982699990272522,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3107","display_name":"Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-key-distribution","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","score":0.8697867393493652},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/eavesdropping","display_name":"Eavesdropping","score":0.7625532150268555},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.7241612672805786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.5249497890472412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.5162882208824158},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-cryptography","display_name":"Quantum cryptography","score":0.4884011149406433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.47495579719543457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/keying","display_name":"Keying","score":0.4447086453437805},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-network","display_name":"Computer network","score":0.3680509328842163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/photon","display_name":"Photon","score":0.316745400428772},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum","display_name":"Quantum","score":0.2734318971633911},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-information","display_name":"Quantum information","score":0.21676591038703918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/telecommunications","display_name":"Telecommunications","score":0.20351359248161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics","display_name":"Physics","score":0.14264729619026184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-mechanics","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","score":0.10132661461830139}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95466800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1027298","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","level":3,"score":0.8697867393493652},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776788033","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q320769","display_name":"Eavesdropping","level":2,"score":0.7625532150268555},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7241612672805786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.5249497890472412},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.5162882208824158},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144901912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q471906","display_name":"Quantum cryptography","level":4,"score":0.4884011149406433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.47495579719543457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776542216","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6398306","display_name":"Keying","level":2,"score":0.4447086453437805},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.3680509328842163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159317903","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3198","display_name":"Photon","level":2,"score":0.316745400428772},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84114770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46344","display_name":"Quantum","level":2,"score":0.2734318971633911},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169699857","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2122243","display_name":"Quantum information","level":3,"score":0.21676591038703918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76155785","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q418","display_name":"Telecommunications","level":1,"score":0.20351359248161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.14264729619026184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.10132661461830139}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2016.2555759","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2016.2555759","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/7419931/07456202.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:9045324d93ac4d019785af441e7d416c","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/9045324d93ac4d019785af441e7d416c","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 4, Pp 2188-2197 (2016)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2016.2555759","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2016.2555759","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/7419931/07456202.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306078","display_name":"U.S. Department of Defense","ror":"https://ror.org/0447fe631"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338294","display_name":"Air Force Research Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/02e2egq70"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2336861552.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2336861552.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":51,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W182556035","https://openalex.org/W1543854718","https://openalex.org/W1646581451","https://openalex.org/W1716995571","https://openalex.org/W1763750585","https://openalex.org/W1822503938","https://openalex.org/W1935679917","https://openalex.org/W1959936891","https://openalex.org/W1963736202","https://openalex.org/W1983526869","https://openalex.org/W1983978562","https://openalex.org/W1995074159","https://openalex.org/W1997102776","https://openalex.org/W2001466659","https://openalex.org/W2024942458","https://openalex.org/W2029617948","https://openalex.org/W2041251400","https://openalex.org/W2047463679","https://openalex.org/W2055617162","https://openalex.org/W2075497199","https://openalex.org/W2085347473","https://openalex.org/W2087265931","https://openalex.org/W2088138918","https://openalex.org/W2088482320","https://openalex.org/W2095159536","https://openalex.org/W2100257068","https://openalex.org/W2109394932","https://openalex.org/W2110033949","https://openalex.org/W2121213780","https://openalex.org/W2131705908","https://openalex.org/W2136747138","https://openalex.org/W2292142193","https://openalex.org/W2295814488","https://openalex.org/W2336770924","https://openalex.org/W2950300453","https://openalex.org/W2963898955","https://openalex.org/W2983536868","https://openalex.org/W2987687226","https://openalex.org/W2990961515","https://openalex.org/W3038067977","https://openalex.org/W3100031416","https://openalex.org/W3104814279","https://openalex.org/W3106538378","https://openalex.org/W4214950786","https://openalex.org/W4239473350","https://openalex.org/W4292407905","https://openalex.org/W4299549341","https://openalex.org/W6638047044","https://openalex.org/W6638543553","https://openalex.org/W6654347880","https://openalex.org/W6734205859"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2294678756","https://openalex.org/W2314334203","https://openalex.org/W4312132309","https://openalex.org/W1993562880","https://openalex.org/W2916069885","https://openalex.org/W2047969991","https://openalex.org/W4221147165","https://openalex.org/W4240944159","https://openalex.org/W2147369345","https://openalex.org/W4321151520"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Quantum":[0],"key":[1,40,134],"distribution":[2,41],"(QKD)":[3],"is":[4,79,97],"an":[5],"innovative":[6],"technology,":[7],"which":[8],"exploits":[9],"the":[10,39,73,94,119,126,131,138,152],"laws":[11],"of":[12,33,93,111,118,140],"quantum":[13,147,178],"mechanics":[14],"to":[15,64,124,145],"generate":[16],"and":[17,47,57,67,86,108,115,136,151,170,175],"distribute":[18],"unconditionally":[19],"secure":[20],"shared":[21],"cryptographic":[22],"keying":[23],"material":[24],"between":[25],"two":[26],"geographically":[27],"separated":[28],"parties.":[29],"The":[30],"unique":[31],"nature":[32],"QKD":[34,60,84,173],"that":[35],"ensures":[36],"eavesdropping":[37],"on":[38,101,130],"channel":[42],"necessarily":[43],"introduces":[44],"detectable":[45],"errors":[46],"shows":[48],"promise":[49],"for":[50,163],"high-security":[51],"environments,":[52],"such":[53,104],"as":[54,105],"banking,":[55],"government,":[56],"military.":[58],"However,":[59],"systems":[61,174],"are":[62,122],"vulnerable":[63],"advanced":[65,166],"theoretical":[66],"experimental":[68],"attacks.":[69],"In":[70],"this":[71,157],"paper,":[72],"photon":[74],"number":[75],"splitting":[76],"(PNS)":[77],"attack":[78,96,121],"studied":[80,123],"in":[81],"a":[82,90,160],"specialized":[83],"modeling":[85],"simulation":[87],"framework.":[88],"First,":[89],"detailed":[91],"treatment":[92],"PNS":[95,120,141],"provided":[98],"with":[99,143],"emphasis":[100],"practical":[102],"considerations,":[103],"performance":[106],"limitations":[107],"realistic":[109],"sources":[110],"error.":[112],"Second,":[113],"ideal":[114],"non-ideal":[116],"variations":[117],"measure":[125],"eavesdropper's":[127],"information":[128],"gain":[129],"QKD-generated":[132],"secret":[133],"bits":[135],"examine":[137],"detectability":[139],"attacks":[142],"respect":[144],"both":[146,168],"bit":[148],"error":[149],"rate":[150],"decoy":[153],"state":[154],"protocol.":[155],"Finally,":[156],"paper":[158],"provides":[159],"repeatable":[161],"methodology":[162],"efficiently":[164],"studying":[165],"attacks,":[167],"realized":[169],"notional,":[171],"against":[172],"more":[176],"generally":[177],"communication":[179],"protocols.":[180]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-05-06T08:25:59.206177","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}