{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4323075742","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jcde/qwad020","title":"Hierarchical reinforcement learning from competitive self-play for dual-aircraft formation air combat","display_name":"Hierarchical reinforcement learning from competitive self-play for dual-aircraft formation air combat","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-03-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4323075742","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jcde/qwad020"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1093/jcde/qwad020","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jcde/qwad020","pdf_url":"https://academic.oup.com/jcde/advance-article-pdf/doi/10.1093/jcde/qwad020/49419391/qwad020.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485147958","display_name":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering","issn_l":"2288-4300","issn":["2288-4300","2288-5048"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://academic.oup.com/jcde/advance-article-pdf/doi/10.1093/jcde/qwad020/49419391/qwad020.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054163782","display_name":"Weiren Kong","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4935-9802"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17145004","display_name":"Northwestern Polytechnical University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y0j0j86","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Wei-ren Kong","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwestern Polytechnical University , Xi'an 710072 , China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4935-9802","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwestern Polytechnical University , Xi'an 710072 , China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046223852","display_name":"Deyun Zhou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7400-5387"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17145004","display_name":"Northwestern Polytechnical University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y0j0j86","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"De-yun Zhou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwestern Polytechnical University , Xi'an 710072 , China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwestern Polytechnical University , Xi'an 710072 , China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5016134917","display_name":"Ying Zhou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3259-438X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17145004","display_name":"Northwestern Polytechnical University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y0j0j86","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ying Zhou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwestern Polytechnical University , Xi'an 710072 , China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwestern Polytechnical University , Xi'an 710072 , China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5084877885","display_name":"Yiyang Zhao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4935-0688"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I17145004","display_name":"Northwestern Polytechnical University","ror":"https://ror.org/01y0j0j86","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yi-yang Zhao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwestern Polytechnical University , Xi'an 710072 , China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwestern Polytechnical University , Xi'an 710072 , China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5054163782"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I17145004"],"apc_list":{"value":1650,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1650},"apc_paid":{"value":1650,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1650},"fwci":18.9332,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":26,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98970529,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"10","issue":"2","first_page":"830","last_page":"859"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12158","display_name":"Guidance and Control Systems","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12158","display_name":"Guidance and Control Systems","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13371","display_name":"Military Defense Systems Analysis","score":0.9740999937057495,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11489","display_name":"Air Traffic Management and Optimization","score":0.9664999842643738,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/air-combat","display_name":"Air combat","score":0.782585620880127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reinforcement-learning","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","score":0.7096483111381531},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.5769272446632385},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/battlefield","display_name":"Battlefield","score":0.5339661240577698},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aeronautics","display_name":"Aeronautics","score":0.5244386792182922},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/dual","display_name":"Dual (grammatical number)","score":0.4790538549423218},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/architecture","display_name":"Architecture","score":0.46120280027389526},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/range","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","score":0.4595652222633362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.4576834738254547},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/air-traffic-control","display_name":"Air traffic control","score":0.44151732325553894},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.4344983398914337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.42560991644859314},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/radar","display_name":"Radar","score":0.4246601164340973},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/operations-research","display_name":"Operations research","score":0.3544003665447235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/simulation","display_name":"Simulation","score":0.3525123596191406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aerospace-engineering","display_name":"Aerospace engineering","score":0.31808042526245117}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2988296547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q471145","display_name":"Air combat","level":2,"score":0.782585620880127},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.7096483111381531},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.5769272446632385},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779669469","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4895508","display_name":"Battlefield","level":2,"score":0.5339661240577698},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178802073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8421","display_name":"Aeronautics","level":1,"score":0.5244386792182922},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780980858","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110022","display_name":"Dual (grammatical number)","level":2,"score":0.4790538549423218},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123657996","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12271","display_name":"Architecture","level":2,"score":0.46120280027389526},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204323151","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905424","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","level":2,"score":0.4595652222633362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.4576834738254547},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166961238","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q221395","display_name":"Air traffic control","level":2,"score":0.44151732325553894},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4344983398914337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.42560991644859314},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554190296","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47528","display_name":"Radar","level":2,"score":0.4246601164340973},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42475967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194292","display_name":"Operations research","level":1,"score":0.3544003665447235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44154836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45045","display_name":"Simulation","level":1,"score":0.3525123596191406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146978453","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3798668","display_name":"Aerospace engineering","level":1,"score":0.31808042526245117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95457728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309","display_name":"History","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142362112","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q735","display_name":"Art","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153349607","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36649","display_name":"Visual arts","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124952713","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8242","display_name":"Literature","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195244886","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41493","display_name":"Ancient history","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1093/jcde/qwad020","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jcde/qwad020","pdf_url":"https://academic.oup.com/jcde/advance-article-pdf/doi/10.1093/jcde/qwad020/49419391/qwad020.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485147958","display_name":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering","issn_l":"2288-4300","issn":["2288-4300","2288-5048"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1093/jcde/qwad020","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jcde/qwad020","pdf_url":"https://academic.oup.com/jcde/advance-article-pdf/doi/10.1093/jcde/qwad020/49419391/qwad020.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485147958","display_name":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering","issn_l":"2288-4300","issn":["2288-4300","2288-5048"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Computational Design and Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1181754849","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62076204","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5527171341","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"3102019ZX016","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335787","funder_display_name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G7794168817","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"61612385","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8936333299","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2021M700337","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335473","funder_display_name":"Postdoctoral Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335473","display_name":"Postdoctoral Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","ror":null},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335787","display_name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":45,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W7859117","https://openalex.org/W298183222","https://openalex.org/W1981276685","https://openalex.org/W2014229971","https://openalex.org/W2016271599","https://openalex.org/W2023857055","https://openalex.org/W2025300149","https://openalex.org/W2075110355","https://openalex.org/W2120846115","https://openalex.org/W2160653558","https://openalex.org/W2515894276","https://openalex.org/W2755174311","https://openalex.org/W2758442112","https://openalex.org/W2763357110","https://openalex.org/W2766167653","https://openalex.org/W2769037371","https://openalex.org/W2896720518","https://openalex.org/W2913448405","https://openalex.org/W2963890729","https://openalex.org/W2997546710","https://openalex.org/W3000245569","https://openalex.org/W3041508111","https://openalex.org/W3046840255","https://openalex.org/W3048217314","https://openalex.org/W3111733174","https://openalex.org/W3112673853","https://openalex.org/W3131698718","https://openalex.org/W3157025383","https://openalex.org/W3190154035","https://openalex.org/W3202614762","https://openalex.org/W3216772467","https://openalex.org/W4312130767","https://openalex.org/W6610526735","https://openalex.org/W6656745246","https://openalex.org/W6678168664","https://openalex.org/W6734215269","https://openalex.org/W6742525227","https://openalex.org/W6749304979","https://openalex.org/W6758729514","https://openalex.org/W6775695405","https://openalex.org/W6779101081","https://openalex.org/W6782512527","https://openalex.org/W6786904988","https://openalex.org/W6804601995","https://openalex.org/W6847789750"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1984179778","https://openalex.org/W2363573290","https://openalex.org/W2387459700","https://openalex.org/W4221073308","https://openalex.org/W4323767831","https://openalex.org/W3107097976","https://openalex.org/W4388562206","https://openalex.org/W3014757303","https://openalex.org/W114187787","https://openalex.org/W1480152548"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"The":[1,22,64,157,171],"recent":[2],"development":[3],"of":[4,25,43,66,75,81,140,179],"technology":[5],"helps":[6],"in":[7,61,77,91,102,182],"the":[8,14,29,33,37,40,51,56,73,82,107,127,138,143,162,183],"revolutionary":[9],"war":[10,15],"and":[11,45,50,169,185],"it":[12],"controls":[13],"which":[16,136],"is":[17,55,117,131,147],"influenced":[18],"by":[19],"brilliant":[20],"planning.":[21],"maneuver":[23,70,114],"aircraft":[24,89,191],"intelligent":[26,177],"algorithm":[27,130],"aids":[28],"pilot":[30],"to":[31,119,149],"decide":[32],"particular":[34],"position":[35],"on":[36,87,106],"battlefield.":[38],"Nowadays":[39],"hardware":[41],"components":[42],"radar":[44],"missiles":[46],"are":[47,85,99],"widely":[48,100],"used":[49],"beyond":[52],"visual":[53],"range":[54],"most":[57],"popular":[58],"method":[59],"applied":[60,101,118],"air":[62,68,92,97,123,180],"combat.":[63,193],"introduction":[65],"close-range":[67,122],"combat":[69,93,124,181],"decisions":[71],"generates":[72,173],"attention":[74],"researchers":[76],"artificial":[78],"intelligence.":[79],"Most":[80],"existing":[83],"methods":[84],"based":[86],"autonomous":[88],"focused":[90],"scenario":[94],"but":[95],"manual":[96],"combats":[98],"dual":[103],"aircraft.":[104],"Based":[105],"factors":[108],"mentioned":[109],"above,":[110],"a":[111,120,174],"novel":[112],"hierarchical":[113,163],"decision":[115],"architecture":[116,164],"dual-aircraft":[121],"scenario.":[125],"Subsequently,":[126],"soft":[128],"actor-critic":[129],"merged":[132],"with":[133],"competitive":[134],"self-play":[135],"integrates":[137],"knowledge":[139],"sub-strategies.":[141],"Further,":[142],"reinforcement":[144],"learning":[145],"technique":[146],"employed":[148],"achieve":[150],"an":[151],"approximate":[152],"Nash":[153],"equilibrium":[154],"master":[155],"strategy.":[156],"experimental":[158],"results":[159],"show":[160],"that":[161],"exhibits":[165],"good":[166],"performance,":[167],"symmetry,":[168],"robustness.":[170],"research":[172],"solution":[175],"for":[176,187],"formation":[178],"future":[184],"guidance":[186],"manned":[188],"or":[189],"unmanned":[190],"cooperative":[192]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":11},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":5}],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}