{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7135389544","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocag033","title":"Systematic review of foundation models for structured electronic health records","display_name":"Systematic review of foundation models for structured electronic health records","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-27","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7135389544","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocag033","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41830958"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1093/jamia/ocag033","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocag033","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S129839026","display_name":"Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association","issn_l":"1067-5027","issn":["1067-5027","1527-974X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13197186/","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5079049199","display_name":"Lin Lawrence Guo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2965-8442"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2801317318","display_name":"Hospital for Sick Children","ror":"https://ror.org/057q4rt57","country_code":"CA","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2801317318"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210141030","display_name":"SickKids Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/04374qe70","country_code":"CA","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210141030"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210147079","display_name":"Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/05p6rhy72","country_code":"CA","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210147079"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lin Lawrence Guo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210147079","https://openalex.org/I2801317318","https://openalex.org/I4210141030"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5129995427","display_name":"Santiago Eduardo Arciniegas","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2801317318","display_name":"Hospital for Sick Children","ror":"https://ror.org/057q4rt57","country_code":"CA","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2801317318"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210141030","display_name":"SickKids Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/04374qe70","country_code":"CA","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210141030"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210147079","display_name":"Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/05p6rhy72","country_code":"CA","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210147079"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Santiago Eduardo Arciniegas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210147079","https://openalex.org/I2801317318","https://openalex.org/I4210141030"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009469008","display_name":"Adam P. Yan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8300-3095"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2801317318","display_name":"Hospital for Sick Children","ror":"https://ror.org/057q4rt57","country_code":"CA","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2801317318"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210141030","display_name":"SickKids Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/04374qe70","country_code":"CA","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210141030"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210147079","display_name":"Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/05p6rhy72","country_code":"CA","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210147079"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Adam Paul Yan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,","Division of Haematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8300-3095","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210147079","https://openalex.org/I2801317318","https://openalex.org/I4210141030"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Haematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2801317318"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5129227368","display_name":"Jason Fries","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210137306","display_name":"Stanford Medicine","ror":"https://ror.org/03mtd9a03","country_code":"US","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210137306","https://openalex.org/I97018004"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I97018004","display_name":"Stanford University","ror":"https://ror.org/00f54p054","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I97018004"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jason Fries","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, CA,","Division of Computational Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, CA,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I97018004"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Computational Medicine, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I97018004","https://openalex.org/I4210137306"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5050932952","display_name":"George Tomlinson","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9328-6399"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1325899441","display_name":"University Health Network","ror":"https://ror.org/042xt5161","country_code":"CA","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1325899441"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"George A Tomlinson","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Medicine, University Health Network , Toronto, ON,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Medicine, University Health Network , Toronto, ON,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1325899441"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5129322971","display_name":"Lillian Sung","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2801317318","display_name":"Hospital for Sick Children","ror":"https://ror.org/057q4rt57","country_code":"CA","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2801317318"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210141030","display_name":"SickKids Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/04374qe70","country_code":"CA","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210141030"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210147079","display_name":"Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/05p6rhy72","country_code":"CA","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210147079"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Lillian Sung","raw_affiliation_strings":["Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,","Division of Haematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0951-3091","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Child Health Evaluative Sciences, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210147079","https://openalex.org/I2801317318","https://openalex.org/I4210141030"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Division of Haematology/Oncology, The Hospital for Sick Children , Toronto,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2801317318"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5129322971"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2801317318","https://openalex.org/I4210141030","https://openalex.org/I4210147079"],"apc_list":{"value":3967,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3967},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":17.7632,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98458695,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"33","issue":"6","first_page":"1190","last_page":"1198"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13702","display_name":"Machine Learning in Healthcare","score":0.8192999958992004,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13702","display_name":"Machine Learning in Healthcare","score":0.8192999958992004,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10350","display_name":"Electronic Health Records Systems","score":0.14329999685287476,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3605","display_name":"Health Information Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/36","display_name":"Health Professions"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11642","display_name":"Genomics and Rare Diseases","score":0.0032999999821186066,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1311","display_name":"Genetics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/13","display_name":"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.5242000222206116},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.4334000051021576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/foundation","display_name":"Foundation (evidence)","score":0.4291999936103821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transparency","display_name":"Transparency (behavior)","score":0.3993000090122223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medline","display_name":"MEDLINE","score":0.37709999084472656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/systematic-review","display_name":"Systematic review","score":0.375900000333786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scale","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","score":0.36239999532699585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/abstraction","display_name":"Abstraction","score":0.3481999933719635}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6847000122070312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.5267000198364258},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.5242000222206116},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4629000127315521},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.4334000051021576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780966255","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5474306","display_name":"Foundation (evidence)","level":2,"score":0.4291999936103821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4081999957561493},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780233690","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q535347","display_name":"Transparency (behavior)","level":2,"score":0.3993000090122223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779473830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1540899","display_name":"MEDLINE","level":2,"score":0.37709999084472656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189708586","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1504425","display_name":"Systematic review","level":3,"score":0.375900000333786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778755073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10858537","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","level":2,"score":0.36239999532699585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124304363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q673661","display_name":"Abstraction","level":2,"score":0.3481999933719635},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123657996","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12271","display_name":"Architecture","level":2,"score":0.3465999960899353},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C133462117","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4929239","display_name":"Data collection","level":2,"score":0.29739999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195910791","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1324077","display_name":"Medical record","level":2,"score":0.2957000136375427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139807058","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q352374","display_name":"Adaptation (eye)","level":2,"score":0.2874999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66322947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658","display_name":"Transformer","level":3,"score":0.28630000352859497},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778827112","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22245680","display_name":"Feature engineering","level":3,"score":0.2784000039100647},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184356942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830382","display_name":"Best practice","level":2,"score":0.2727999985218048},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.27230000495910645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45804977","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7239673","display_name":"Predictive modelling","level":2,"score":0.2689000070095062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3020144179","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10871684","display_name":"Electronic health record","level":3,"score":0.26829999685287476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2655999958515167},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3019952477","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1324077","display_name":"Health records","level":3,"score":0.2639000117778778},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C150899416","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1820378","display_name":"Transfer of learning","level":2,"score":0.2522999942302704}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000069550","descriptor_name":"Machine Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000069550","descriptor_name":"Machine Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D000069553","descriptor_name":"Supervised Machine Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000069553","descriptor_name":"Supervised Machine Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000069553","descriptor_name":"Supervised Machine Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D057286","descriptor_name":"Electronic Health Records","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D057286","descriptor_name":"Electronic Health Records","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D057286","descriptor_name":"Electronic Health Records","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true}],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1093/jamia/ocag033","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocag033","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S129839026","display_name":"Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association","issn_l":"1067-5027","issn":["1067-5027","1527-974X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:41830958","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41830958","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association : JAMIA","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:13197186","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13197186/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"J Am Med Inform Assoc","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:13197186","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13197186/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"J Am Med Inform Assoc","raw_type":"Text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Reduced inequalities","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","score":0.632675051689148}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":52,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W3012609595","https://openalex.org/W3017637887","https://openalex.org/W3089168780","https://openalex.org/W3112116031","https://openalex.org/W3118615836","https://openalex.org/W3125915762","https://openalex.org/W3125949103","https://openalex.org/W3160137267","https://openalex.org/W3196995059","https://openalex.org/W3198991729","https://openalex.org/W3212074329","https://openalex.org/W4206457381","https://openalex.org/W4282946251","https://openalex.org/W4292405741","https://openalex.org/W4307498511","https://openalex.org/W4310645210","https://openalex.org/W4323359744","https://openalex.org/W4360603934","https://openalex.org/W4367046802","https://openalex.org/W4379878309","https://openalex.org/W4381715962","https://openalex.org/W4383874060","https://openalex.org/W4384071683","https://openalex.org/W4385381606","https://openalex.org/W4386215461","https://openalex.org/W4387272122","https://openalex.org/W4387446802","https://openalex.org/W4387757499","https://openalex.org/W4387996976","https://openalex.org/W4389132345","https://openalex.org/W4391224328","https://openalex.org/W4391568984","https://openalex.org/W4391766737","https://openalex.org/W4393021028","https://openalex.org/W4393386220","https://openalex.org/W4395688431","https://openalex.org/W4400098873","https://openalex.org/W4402645752","https://openalex.org/W4403664165","https://openalex.org/W4403859888","https://openalex.org/W4405042550","https://openalex.org/W4406152279","https://openalex.org/W4410050198","https://openalex.org/W4410976412","https://openalex.org/W4411027404","https://openalex.org/W4411266063","https://openalex.org/W4411299699","https://openalex.org/W4412939836","https://openalex.org/W4413115429","https://openalex.org/W4413977623","https://openalex.org/W4414628448","https://openalex.org/W7118318208"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"PURPOSE:":[0],"Foundation":[1],"models":[2,35,72,196,220],"pretrained":[3,36,73,123],"on":[4,37,74,125],"structured":[5,38,75],"electronic":[6],"health":[7],"record":[8],"(EHR)":[9],"data":[10,77,90],"promise":[11],"improved":[12],"predictive":[13],"performance,":[14,238],"sample":[15],"efficiency":[16],"and":[17,26,47,50,52,66,81,89,99,165,179,188,199,202,207,214,240,245],"resilience":[18],"to":[19,32,56,83,176,252],"distribution":[20],"shifts.":[21],"However,":[22],"model":[23,45],"design,":[24],"scale":[25,187],"use":[27,153],"remain":[28,209],"unclear.":[29],"Objectives":[30],"were":[31,92,97,108,190],"characterize":[33],"foundation":[34,71,195,219],"EHR":[39,76,194,218],"data;":[40],"examine":[41],"temporal":[42,161],"trends":[43],"in":[44,94],"application":[46,144],"scale,":[48],"architecture":[49,129],"design;":[51],"assess":[53],"the":[54,119],"extent":[55],"which":[57,234],"publications":[58,110],"omitted":[59],"methodological":[60,205],"details.":[61],"METHODS:":[62],"We":[63],"searched":[64],"MEDLINE":[65],"Embase":[67],"(2018-October":[68],"2025)":[69],"for":[70,217],"using":[78],"self-supervised":[79,163],"learning":[80],"applied":[82],"clinical":[84,182,228],"prediction":[85],"tasks.":[86],"Study":[87],"selection":[88],"abstraction":[91],"performed":[93],"duplicate.":[95],"Characteristics":[96],"summarized":[98],"stratified":[100],"by":[101],"median":[102],"publication":[103],"year.":[104],"RESULTS:":[105],"Fifty-three":[106],"studies":[107,173],"included;":[109],"increased":[111],"over":[112],"time.":[113],"Most":[114],"datasets":[115],"(79%)":[116],"originated":[117],"from":[118,146],"United":[120],"States.":[121],"None":[122,226],"exclusively":[124,147],"pediatric":[126],"cohorts.":[127],"Model":[128],"shifted":[130,145],"towards":[131],"transformers":[132],"(P":[133,140,154],"=":[134,141],".013)":[135],"with":[136],"longer":[137],"context":[138],"windows":[139],".028),":[142],"while":[143],"embedding-based":[148],"toward":[149],"generative":[150],"or":[151],"mixed":[152],"<":[155],".001).":[156],"Choices":[157],"regarding":[158],"feature":[159],"inclusion,":[160],"representation,":[162],"objective":[164],"downstream":[166],"adaptation":[167],"remained":[168],"heterogeneous.":[169],"Only":[170],"26%":[171],"of":[172,186],"evaluated":[174],"transfer":[175],"external":[177],"datasets,":[178],"none":[180],"described":[181],"deployment.":[183,229],"Key":[184],"indicators":[185],"compute":[189],"frequently":[191],"unreported.":[192],"CONCLUSIONS:":[193],"are":[197],"proliferating":[198],"increasingly":[200],"transformer-based":[201],"generative.":[203],"Yet":[204],"choices":[206,236],"reporting":[208,243],"fragmented,":[210],"indicating":[211],"design":[212,235],"trade-offs":[213],"best":[215],"practices":[216],"have":[221],"not":[222],"yet":[223],"been":[224],"established.":[225],"describe":[227],"Future":[230],"work":[231],"should":[232],"clarify":[233],"improve":[237,253],"robustness":[239],"transferability,":[241],"increase":[242],"transparency":[244],"identify":[246],"if":[247],"they":[248],"can":[249],"be":[250],"implemented":[251],"patient-important":[254],"outcomes.":[255]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-06-21T07:57:09.225873","created_date":"2026-03-15T00:00:00"}