{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3138857801","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyab008","title":"Restraint under conditions of uncertainty: Why the United States tolerates cyberattacks","display_name":"Restraint under conditions of uncertainty: Why the United States tolerates cyberattacks","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3138857801","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyab008","mag":"3138857801"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1093/cybsec/tyab008","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyab008","pdf_url":"https://academic.oup.com/cybersecurity/article-pdf/7/1/tyab008/36522578/tyab008.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2735156331","display_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2057-2085","issn":["2057-2085","2057-2093"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":"public-domain","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/public-domain","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://academic.oup.com/cybersecurity/article-pdf/7/1/tyab008/36522578/tyab008.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108757606","display_name":"Monica Kaminska","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I121797337","display_name":"Leiden University","ror":"https://ror.org/027bh9e22","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121797337"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2801375708","display_name":"Hague Institute for Global Justice","ror":"https://ror.org/0363anr51","country_code":"NL","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2801375708"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I40120149","display_name":"University of Oxford","ror":"https://ror.org/052gg0110","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I40120149"]}],"countries":["GB","NL"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Monica Kaminska","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford, Manor Road Building, Manor Road, Oxford OX1 3UQ, UK","Hague Program for Cyber Norms, Institute of Security and Global Affairs, Leiden University, Wijnhaven, Turfmarkt 99, 2511DP The Hague, The Netherlands"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6729-5235","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford, Manor Road Building, Manor Road, Oxford OX1 3UQ, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I40120149"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hague Program for Cyber Norms, Institute of Security and Global Affairs, Leiden University, Wijnhaven, Turfmarkt 99, 2511DP The Hague, The Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2801375708","https://openalex.org/I121797337"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5108757606"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I121797337","https://openalex.org/I2801375708","https://openalex.org/I40120149"],"apc_list":{"value":1864,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1864},"apc_paid":{"value":1864,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1864},"fwci":56.1444,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":78,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99872353,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"7","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12221","display_name":"Cybersecurity and Cyber Warfare Studies","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12221","display_name":"Cybersecurity and Cyber Warfare Studies","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10734","display_name":"Information and Cyber Security","score":0.9853000044822693,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13369","display_name":"European and Russian Geopolitical Military Strategies","score":0.9801999926567078,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cyberspace","display_name":"Cyberspace","score":0.7229856252670288},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/unintended-consequences","display_name":"Unintended consequences","score":0.6154316663742065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/misattribution-of-memory","display_name":"Misattribution of memory","score":0.6109356880187988},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/risk-management","display_name":"Risk management","score":0.6106137633323669},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/resilience","display_name":"Resilience (materials science)","score":0.5553339719772339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.49100545048713684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/administration","display_name":"Administration (probate law)","score":0.4874155819416046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/risk-analysis","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","score":0.48738914728164673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/business","display_name":"Business","score":0.465728223323822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/closure","display_name":"Closure (psychology)","score":0.42752134799957275},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/collateral-damage","display_name":"Collateral damage","score":0.4213820695877075},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/law-and-economics","display_name":"Law and economics","score":0.3966739773750305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/political-science","display_name":"Political science","score":0.3777300715446472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/public-relations","display_name":"Public relations","score":0.35291099548339844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/economics","display_name":"Economics","score":0.31690043210983276},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/the-internet","display_name":"The Internet","score":0.24079972505569458},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.23014667630195618},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/law","display_name":"Law","score":0.22563481330871582},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/criminology","display_name":"Criminology","score":0.2001224160194397},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.1929759383201599},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/finance","display_name":"Finance","score":0.1684875786304474},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognition","display_name":"Cognition","score":0.09463927149772644}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781241145","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q204606","display_name":"Cyberspace","level":3,"score":0.7229856252670288},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776889888","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1135789","display_name":"Unintended consequences","level":2,"score":0.6154316663742065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120039088","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6875176","display_name":"Misattribution of memory","level":3,"score":0.6109356880187988},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C32896092","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189447","display_name":"Risk management","level":2,"score":0.6106137633323669},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779585090","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3457762","display_name":"Resilience (materials science)","level":2,"score":0.5553339719772339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.49100545048713684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780765947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12033531","display_name":"Administration (probate law)","level":2,"score":0.4874155819416046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112930515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4389547","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","level":1,"score":0.48738914728164673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.465728223323822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146834321","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2979672","display_name":"Closure (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.42752134799957275},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993632694","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45939","display_name":"Collateral damage","level":2,"score":0.4213820695877075},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190253527","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q295354","display_name":"Law and economics","level":1,"score":0.3966739773750305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.3777300715446472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39549134","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133080","display_name":"Public relations","level":1,"score":0.35291099548339844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.31690043210983276},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110875604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75","display_name":"The Internet","level":2,"score":0.24079972505569458},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.23014667630195618},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.22563481330871582},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C73484699","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161733","display_name":"Criminology","level":1,"score":0.2001224160194397},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.1929759383201599},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10138342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43015","display_name":"Finance","level":1,"score":0.1684875786304474},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.09463927149772644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136764020","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466","display_name":"World Wide Web","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97355855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11473","display_name":"Thermodynamics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1093/cybsec/tyab008","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyab008","pdf_url":"https://academic.oup.com/cybersecurity/article-pdf/7/1/tyab008/36522578/tyab008.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2735156331","display_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2057-2085","issn":["2057-2085","2057-2093"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":"public-domain","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/public-domain","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:kclpure.kcl.ac.uk:publications/a9dd9e8d-d606-47e3-b2f6-7a5c6af65f7d","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/a9dd9e8d-d606-47e3-b2f6-7a5c6af65f7d","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400216","display_name":"Research Portal (King's College London)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I183935753","host_organization_name":"King's College London","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I183935753"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Kaminska, M 2021, 'Restraint under conditions of uncertainty: Why the United States tolerates cyberattacks', Journal of Cybersecurity, vol. 7, no. 1.","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl:item_3245265","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1887/3245265","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400850","display_name":"Leiden Repository (Leiden University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I121797337","host_organization_name":"Leiden University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I121797337"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity","raw_type":"Article / Letter to editor"},{"id":"pmh:ul:oai:scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl:item_3245265","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/1887/3245265","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401843","display_name":"Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1322597698","host_organization_name":"Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1322597698"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity, 7(1)","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1093/cybsec/tyab008","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/cybsec/tyab008","pdf_url":"https://academic.oup.com/cybersecurity/article-pdf/7/1/tyab008/36522578/tyab008.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2735156331","display_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity","issn_l":"2057-2085","issn":["2057-2085","2057-2093"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":"public-domain","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/public-domain","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Cybersecurity","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Peace, Justice and strong institutions","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.4699999988079071}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320290","display_name":"University of Oxford","ror":"https://ror.org/052gg0110"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320324643","display_name":"Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken","ror":"https://ror.org/03rx2ty86"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3138857801.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3138857801.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":68,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W561263808","https://openalex.org/W564782896","https://openalex.org/W565944652","https://openalex.org/W586580988","https://openalex.org/W633330723","https://openalex.org/W645233454","https://openalex.org/W1487024384","https://openalex.org/W1491531314","https://openalex.org/W1523223233","https://openalex.org/W1542677777","https://openalex.org/W1590935167","https://openalex.org/W1605439275","https://openalex.org/W1700488067","https://openalex.org/W1745290066","https://openalex.org/W1895934011","https://openalex.org/W1965672187","https://openalex.org/W1990514007","https://openalex.org/W1993595248","https://openalex.org/W2002633074","https://openalex.org/W2006847287","https://openalex.org/W2047810557","https://openalex.org/W2048627029","https://openalex.org/W2050588495","https://openalex.org/W2060993289","https://openalex.org/W2062199894","https://openalex.org/W2117697005","https://openalex.org/W2139642238","https://openalex.org/W2141374615","https://openalex.org/W2156137022","https://openalex.org/W2250886915","https://openalex.org/W2280306538","https://openalex.org/W2332125581","https://openalex.org/W2479427848","https://openalex.org/W2503297877","https://openalex.org/W2517418312","https://openalex.org/W2544086620","https://openalex.org/W2584161158","https://openalex.org/W2588205325","https://openalex.org/W2753741883","https://openalex.org/W2798739120","https://openalex.org/W2800071259","https://openalex.org/W2883733614","https://openalex.org/W2884404578","https://openalex.org/W2948992711","https://openalex.org/W2954963034","https://openalex.org/W2956989962","https://openalex.org/W2970963972","https://openalex.org/W2974280075","https://openalex.org/W2979593716","https://openalex.org/W2995133082","https://openalex.org/W3009137258","https://openalex.org/W3029168468","https://openalex.org/W3086675985","https://openalex.org/W3122923900","https://openalex.org/W3123051149","https://openalex.org/W3131038908","https://openalex.org/W3141527788","https://openalex.org/W4211091495","https://openalex.org/W4237595642","https://openalex.org/W4246717786","https://openalex.org/W4249371484","https://openalex.org/W4293117802","https://openalex.org/W4299932822","https://openalex.org/W6680948733","https://openalex.org/W6695344023","https://openalex.org/W6726664002","https://openalex.org/W6771788285","https://openalex.org/W6982220538"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2368745349","https://openalex.org/W2891695624","https://openalex.org/W4233655303","https://openalex.org/W2157685728","https://openalex.org/W2162199785","https://openalex.org/W1948472607","https://openalex.org/W3167675181","https://openalex.org/W2034528673","https://openalex.org/W2372005904","https://openalex.org/W2246369189"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"The":[1,37,58,148],"United":[2,20,106],"States":[3,107],"struggles":[4],"to":[5,28,56,75,116,144,160],"impose":[6],"meaningful":[7,112],"costs":[8],"for":[9,40,100],"destructive":[10],"or":[11],"disruptive":[12],"cyber":[13,51,162],"operations.":[14],"This":[15],"article":[16,59,124],"argues":[17],"that":[18,61,151],"the":[19,44,50,71,77,82,105,109,118,123,126,141,145,156,161],"States'":[21],"restrained":[22],"responses":[23,55],"stem":[24],"from":[25,140],"a":[26,97],"desire":[27,39],"avoid":[29],"risk":[30,41,78,83,101,129,152],"in":[31,108],"an":[32],"inherently":[33],"uncertain":[34],"operational":[35,64],"environment.":[36],"societal":[38],"avoidance":[42],"is":[43],"prism":[45],"through":[46],"which":[47],"policymakers":[48],"address":[49],"domain":[52],"and":[53,70,81,92,137],"deliberate":[54],"attacks.":[57],"shows":[60],"two":[62],"particular":[63,98],"characteristics":[65,95],"of":[66,73,79,84,111,120,128],"cyberspace\u2014its":[67],"complex":[68],"adaptiveness":[69],"ease":[72],"proliferation\u2014combine":[74],"increase":[76],"misattribution":[80],"unintended":[85],"effects,":[86],"including":[87,132],"collateral":[88],"damage,":[89],"inadvertent":[90],"escalation":[91],"blowback.":[93],"These":[94],"present":[96],"obstacle":[99],"societies":[102],"such":[103],"as":[104],"application":[110,127],"punishments.":[113],"In":[114],"addition":[115],"establishing":[117],"roots":[119],"US":[121,158],"restraint,":[122],"traces":[125],"management":[130,153],"practices,":[131],"preventive":[133],"action,":[134],"increasing":[135],"resilience":[136],"consequence":[138],"management,":[139],"Obama":[142],"administration":[143],"Trump":[146],"administration.":[147],"analysis":[149],"reveals":[150],"has":[154],"underpinned":[155],"overall":[157],"approach":[159],"domain.":[163]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":30},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":21},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}