{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2107647130","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109168108","title":"Comparing machines and humans on a visual categorization test","display_name":"Comparing machines and humans on a visual categorization test","publication_year":2011,"publication_date":"2011-10-17","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2107647130","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109168108","mag":"2107647130","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22006295"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1073/pnas.1109168108","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109168108","pdf_url":"https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/108/43/17621.full.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S125754415","display_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issn_l":"0027-8424","issn":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320052","host_organization_name":"National Academy of Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320052"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Academy of Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"bronze","oa_url":"https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/108/43/17621.full.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076094010","display_name":"Fran\u00e7ois Fleuret","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9457-7393"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I5124864","display_name":"\u00c9cole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne","ror":"https://ror.org/02s376052","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799323385","https://openalex.org/I5124864"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7495430","display_name":"Idiap Research Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/05932h694","country_code":"CH","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I7495430"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Fran\u00e7ois Fleuret","raw_affiliation_strings":["Idiap Research Institute, 1920 Martigny, Switzerland;","\u00c9cole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;","IDIAP Research Institute, 1920 Martigny, Switzerland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Idiap Research Institute, 1920 Martigny, Switzerland;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I7495430"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"\u00c9cole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I5124864"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"IDIAP Research Institute, 1920 Martigny, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I7495430"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100416826","display_name":"Ting Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5145-3024"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I145311948","display_name":"Johns Hopkins University","ror":"https://ror.org/00za53h95","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I145311948"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ting Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218; and"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218; and","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I145311948"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000299398","display_name":"Charles Dubout","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I5124864","display_name":"\u00c9cole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne","ror":"https://ror.org/02s376052","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799323385","https://openalex.org/I5124864"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7495430","display_name":"Idiap Research Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/05932h694","country_code":"CH","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I7495430"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Charles Dubout","raw_affiliation_strings":["Idiap Research Institute, 1920 Martigny, Switzerland;","\u00c9cole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Idiap Research Institute, 1920 Martigny, Switzerland;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I7495430"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"\u00c9cole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I5124864"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039387035","display_name":"Emma K. Wampler","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I145311948","display_name":"Johns Hopkins University","ror":"https://ror.org/00za53h95","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I145311948"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Emma K. Wampler","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I145311948"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028963810","display_name":"Steven Yantis","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I145311948","display_name":"Johns Hopkins University","ror":"https://ror.org/00za53h95","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I145311948"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Steven Yantis","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I145311948"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5013551450","display_name":"Donald Geman","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I145311948","display_name":"Johns Hopkins University","ror":"https://ror.org/00za53h95","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I145311948"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Donald Geman","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218; and"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218; and","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I145311948"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5076094010"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I5124864","https://openalex.org/I7495430"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.8787,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":142,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92607714,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"108","issue":"43","first_page":"17621","last_page":"17625"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10627","display_name":"Advanced Image and Video Retrieval Techniques","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10627","display_name":"Advanced Image and Video Retrieval Techniques","score":0.9997000098228455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11307","display_name":"Domain Adaptation and Few-Shot Learning","score":0.9988999962806702,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10824","display_name":"Image Retrieval and Classification Techniques","score":0.9987000226974487,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1707","display_name":"Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8038601875305176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/categorization","display_name":"Categorization","score":0.7550238370895386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/parsing","display_name":"Parsing","score":0.721380889415741},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7211686372756958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/grasp","display_name":"GRASP","score":0.6561590433120728},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.6000409722328186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/semantic-gap","display_name":"Semantic gap","score":0.4768846333026886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/visual-reasoning","display_name":"Visual reasoning","score":0.410936564207077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.4098019599914551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.3345259726047516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image-retrieval","display_name":"Image retrieval","score":0.08152857422828674}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8038601875305176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94124525","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q912550","display_name":"Categorization","level":2,"score":0.7550238370895386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186644900","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q194152","display_name":"Parsing","level":2,"score":0.721380889415741},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7211686372756958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C171268870","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1486676","display_name":"GRASP","level":2,"score":0.6561590433120728},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.6000409722328186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86034646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q474311","display_name":"Semantic gap","level":4,"score":0.4768846333026886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777508537","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7936620","display_name":"Visual reasoning","level":2,"score":0.410936564207077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.4098019599914551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.3345259726047516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C1667742","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10927554","display_name":"Image retrieval","level":3,"score":0.08152857422828674},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000465","descriptor_name":"Algorithms","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D001185","descriptor_name":"Artificial Intelligence","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D001185","descriptor_name":"Artificial Intelligence","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D001185","descriptor_name":"Artificial Intelligence","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010363","descriptor_name":"Pattern Recognition, Automated","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010363","descriptor_name":"Pattern Recognition, Automated","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010363","descriptor_name":"Pattern Recognition, Automated","qualifier_ui":"Q000379","qualifier_name":"methods","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010364","descriptor_name":"Pattern Recognition, Visual","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010364","descriptor_name":"Pattern Recognition, Visual","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010364","descriptor_name":"Pattern Recognition, Visual","qualifier_ui":"Q000502","qualifier_name":"physiology","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D011340","descriptor_name":"Problem Solving","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D011340","descriptor_name":"Problem Solving","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D011340","descriptor_name":"Problem Solving","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true}],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1073/pnas.1109168108","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109168108","pdf_url":"https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/108/43/17621.full.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S125754415","display_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issn_l":"0027-8424","issn":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320052","host_organization_name":"National Academy of Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320052"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Academy of Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:22006295","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22006295","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:europepmc.org:2339311","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/3203755","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400806","display_name":"Europe PMC (PubMed Central)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1303153112","host_organization_name":"European Bioinformatics Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303153112"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:infoscience.epfl.ch:170765","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/170765","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400487","display_name":"Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1073/pnas.1109168108","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1109168108","pdf_url":"https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/108/43/17621.full.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S125754415","display_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issn_l":"0027-8424","issn":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320052","host_organization_name":"National Academy of Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320052"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Academy of Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.6600000262260437}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2107647130.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2107647130.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":25,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1748744376","https://openalex.org/W1970255615","https://openalex.org/W2017537431","https://openalex.org/W2020343399","https://openalex.org/W2030536784","https://openalex.org/W2034836133","https://openalex.org/W2045798786","https://openalex.org/W2084134149","https://openalex.org/W2099972257","https://openalex.org/W2104978738","https://openalex.org/W2111488376","https://openalex.org/W2118010438","https://openalex.org/W2128216633","https://openalex.org/W2136922672","https://openalex.org/W2145073242","https://openalex.org/W2149194912","https://openalex.org/W2156909104","https://openalex.org/W2161969291","https://openalex.org/W2162708558","https://openalex.org/W2168356304","https://openalex.org/W2217896605","https://openalex.org/W3017143921","https://openalex.org/W3097096317","https://openalex.org/W3146079624","https://openalex.org/W6681651645"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2502722637","https://openalex.org/W2167662847","https://openalex.org/W1551406738","https://openalex.org/W2369308426","https://openalex.org/W2293457016","https://openalex.org/W2977842567","https://openalex.org/W1590308178","https://openalex.org/W2789919619","https://openalex.org/W1818857488","https://openalex.org/W2020540721"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Automated":[0],"scene":[1],"interpretation":[2],"has":[3],"benefited":[4],"from":[5,39,126],"advances":[6],"in":[7,31,58,71,161],"machine":[8,69,167],"learning,":[9],"and":[10,45,68,104,140],"restricted":[11,24],"tasks,":[12],"such":[13,164],"as":[14,165],"face":[15],"detection,":[16],"have":[17],"been":[18],"solved":[19],"with":[20,169],"sufficient":[21],"accuracy":[22],"for":[23,114],"settings.":[25],"However,":[26],"the":[27,64,82,94,98,105,123,132],"performance":[28],"of":[29,36,50,66,77,85,101,107,129,135,145,152],"machines":[30],"providing":[32],"rich":[33],"semantic":[34,115],"descriptions":[35],"natural":[37],"scenes":[38],"digital":[40],"images":[41,89,103],"remains":[42],"highly":[43],"limited":[44],"hugely":[46],"inferior":[47],"to":[48,75,111,150,158],"that":[49,109,119,144],"humans.":[51],"Here":[52],"we":[53],"quantify":[54],"this":[55],"\"semantic":[56],"gap\"":[57],"a":[59,127],"particular":[60],"setting:":[61],"We":[62],"compare":[63],"efficiency":[65],"human":[67,120],"learning":[70,168],"assigning":[72],"an":[73],"image":[74],"one":[76],"two":[78],"categories":[79],"determined":[80],"by":[81],"spatial":[83],"arrangement":[84],"constituent":[86],"parts.":[87],"The":[88],"are":[90],"not":[91],"real,":[92],"but":[93],"category-defining":[95],"rules":[96],"reflect":[97],"compositional":[99],"structure":[100],"real":[102],"type":[106],"\"reasoning\"":[108],"appears":[110],"be":[112],"necessary":[113],"parsing.":[116],"Experiments":[117],"demonstrate":[118],"subjects":[121],"grasp":[122],"separating":[124],"principles":[125],"handful":[128],"examples,":[130],"whereas":[131],"error":[133],"rates":[134],"computer":[136,162],"programs":[137],"fluctuate":[138],"wildly":[139],"remain":[141],"far":[142],"behind":[143],"humans":[146],"even":[147],"after":[148],"exposure":[149],"thousands":[151],"examples.":[153],"These":[154],"observations":[155],"lend":[156],"support":[157],"current":[159],"trends":[160],"vision":[163],"integrating":[166],"parts-based":[170],"modeling.":[171]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":13},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":24},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":15},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":18},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-03-13T16:22:10.518609","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
