{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7134224938","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1049/ipr2.70281","title":"Visual Defect Detection in Fused Filament 3D Printing, Using Embedding Similarity","display_name":"Visual Defect Detection in Fused Filament 3D Printing, Using Embedding Similarity","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7134224938","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1049/ipr2.70281"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1049/ipr2.70281","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1049/ipr2.70281","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S83215360","display_name":"IET Image Processing","issn_l":"1751-9659","issn":["1751-9659","1751-9667"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311714","host_organization_name":"Institution of Engineering and Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311714"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institution of Engineering and Technology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IET Image Processing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1049/ipr2.70281","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5117518623","display_name":"Saleh Ebrahimian","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802629803","display_name":"Innovate UK","ror":"https://ror.org/05ar5fy68","country_code":"GB","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803","https://openalex.org/I4210087105"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Saleh Ebrahimian","raw_affiliation_strings":["AI\u2010innovate Solutions Inc.  Oakville Ontario Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"AI\u2010innovate Solutions Inc.  Oakville Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5117518624","display_name":"Elham Armin","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802629803","display_name":"Innovate UK","ror":"https://ror.org/05ar5fy68","country_code":"GB","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803","https://openalex.org/I4210087105"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Elham Armin","raw_affiliation_strings":["AI\u2010innovate Solutions Inc.  Oakville Ontario Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"AI\u2010innovate Solutions Inc.  Oakville Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128479495","display_name":"Kanstantsin Pachkouski","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210160175","display_name":"PROTO Manufacturing (Canada)","ror":"https://ror.org/053bn9w04","country_code":"CA","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210151394","https://openalex.org/I4210160175"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kanstantsin Pachkouski","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mosaic Manufacturing Ltd.  Toronto Ontario Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mosaic Manufacturing Ltd.  Toronto Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210160175"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128590866","display_name":"Drew Shark","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802586913","display_name":"CNIB Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/03z2x5890","country_code":"CA","type":"funder","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802586913"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Drew Shark","raw_affiliation_strings":["Matter and Form Inc.  Toronto Ontario Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Matter and Form Inc.  Toronto Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802586913"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128594787","display_name":"Alex Tucker","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210160175","display_name":"PROTO Manufacturing (Canada)","ror":"https://ror.org/053bn9w04","country_code":"CA","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210151394","https://openalex.org/I4210160175"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alex Tucker","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mosaic Manufacturing Ltd.  Toronto Ontario Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mosaic Manufacturing Ltd.  Toronto Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210160175"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128574049","display_name":"Kysen Leo","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210160175","display_name":"PROTO Manufacturing (Canada)","ror":"https://ror.org/053bn9w04","country_code":"CA","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210151394","https://openalex.org/I4210160175"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kysen Leo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mosaic Manufacturing Ltd.  Toronto Ontario Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mosaic Manufacturing Ltd.  Toronto Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210160175"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000955813","display_name":"Mehdi Sanjari","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7523-5769"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802629803","display_name":"Innovate UK","ror":"https://ror.org/05ar5fy68","country_code":"GB","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803","https://openalex.org/I4210087105"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210097180","display_name":"Forming Technologies (Canada)","ror":"https://ror.org/011e1gw30","country_code":"CA","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210097180"]}],"countries":["CA","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mehdi Sanjari","raw_affiliation_strings":["AI\u2010innovate Solutions Inc.  Oakville Ontario Canada","SAIWA Inc. Burlington Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"AI\u2010innovate Solutions Inc.  Oakville Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"SAIWA Inc. Burlington Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210097180"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5003567100","display_name":"Peyman Saidi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2865-8325"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204722609","display_name":"Queen's University","ror":"https://ror.org/02y72wh86","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204722609"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Peyman Saidi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Queen's University  Kingston Ontario Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Queen's University  Kingston Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204722609"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128377334","display_name":"Hamid\u2010Reza Pourreza","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802629803","display_name":"Innovate UK","ror":"https://ror.org/05ar5fy68","country_code":"GB","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803","https://openalex.org/I4210087105"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Hamid\u2010Reza Pourreza","raw_affiliation_strings":["AI\u2010innovate Solutions Inc.  Oakville Ontario Canada"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3560-8070","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"AI\u2010innovate Solutions Inc.  Oakville Ontario Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5128377334"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802629803"],"apc_list":{"value":2530,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2530},"apc_paid":{"value":2530,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2530},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.20445717,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"20","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10783","display_name":"Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies","score":0.8255000114440918,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10783","display_name":"Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies","score":0.8255000114440918,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12111","display_name":"Industrial Vision Systems and Defect Detection","score":0.024800000712275505,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2209","display_name":"Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11159","display_name":"Manufacturing Process and Optimization","score":0.010700000450015068,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2209","display_name":"Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.7742999792098999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/false-positive-paradox","display_name":"False positive paradox","score":0.588100016117096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embedding","display_name":"Embedding","score":0.451200008392334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/layer","display_name":"Layer (electronics)","score":0.42649999260902405},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.4221000075340271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.397599995136261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image-resolution","display_name":"Image resolution","score":0.36410000920295715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/similarity","display_name":"Similarity (geometry)","score":0.3391999900341034}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.7742999792098999},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6599000096321106},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6110000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C64869954","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1859747","display_name":"False positive paradox","level":2,"score":0.588100016117096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.5751000046730042},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41608201","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q980509","display_name":"Embedding","level":2,"score":0.451200008392334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779227376","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6505497","display_name":"Layer (electronics)","level":2,"score":0.42649999260902405},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.4221000075340271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.397599995136261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205372480","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q210521","display_name":"Image resolution","level":2,"score":0.36410000920295715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C103278499","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254465","display_name":"Similarity (geometry)","level":3,"score":0.3391999900341034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21200559","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7451068","display_name":"Sensitivity (control systems)","level":2,"score":0.3359000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C65909025","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1945033","display_name":"Monocular","level":2,"score":0.3312999904155731},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C168820333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q448889","display_name":"Visual inspection","level":2,"score":0.3310999870300293},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C160633673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q355198","display_name":"Pixel","level":2,"score":0.31679999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152745839","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5438153","display_name":"Fault detection and isolation","level":3,"score":0.3010999858379364},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.2976999878883362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136525101","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5428139","display_name":"Fabrication","level":3,"score":0.2815000116825104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106436119","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836575","display_name":"Quality assurance","level":3,"score":0.2800000011920929},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777402240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6783436","display_name":"Masking (illustration)","level":2,"score":0.2563999891281128},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115051666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6522493","display_name":"Ranging","level":2,"score":0.25060001015663147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14228908","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2920483","display_name":"Protein filament","level":2,"score":0.25}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1049/ipr2.70281","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1049/ipr2.70281","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S83215360","display_name":"IET Image Processing","issn_l":"1751-9659","issn":["1751-9659","1751-9667"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311714","host_organization_name":"Institution of Engineering and Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311714"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institution of Engineering and Technology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IET Image Processing","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1049/ipr2.70281","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1049/ipr2.70281","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S83215360","display_name":"IET Image Processing","issn_l":"1751-9659","issn":["1751-9659","1751-9667"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311714","host_organization_name":"Institution of Engineering and Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311714"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institution of Engineering and Technology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IET Image Processing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.4641449749469757,"display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":25,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2040732657","https://openalex.org/W2167667767","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2397118735","https://openalex.org/W2962785568","https://openalex.org/W3044232405","https://openalex.org/W3102456404","https://openalex.org/W3111471261","https://openalex.org/W3147184966","https://openalex.org/W3154309063","https://openalex.org/W3169651898","https://openalex.org/W3174937684","https://openalex.org/W3209914635","https://openalex.org/W4205626641","https://openalex.org/W4315777075","https://openalex.org/W4318828670","https://openalex.org/W4319299987","https://openalex.org/W4386893441","https://openalex.org/W4391381454","https://openalex.org/W4394939759","https://openalex.org/W4403095012","https://openalex.org/W4406264603","https://openalex.org/W4407356386","https://openalex.org/W4407912145","https://openalex.org/W4413913477"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"ABSTRACT":[0],"Defect":[1],"detection":[2,144],"in":[3,160,180],"fused":[4],"filament":[5],"fabrication":[6],"(FFF)":[7],"is":[8],"essential":[9],"to":[10,127,184],"ensuring":[11],"part":[12],"reliability,":[13],"as":[14,18],"printing":[15],"faults":[16],"such":[17],"layer":[19,83,159],"shift,":[20],"under\u2010extrusion,":[21],"and":[22,29,89,177,196,206,214],"poor":[23],"adhesion":[24],"can":[25,61],"compromise":[26],"structural":[27],"integrity":[28],"increase":[30],"material":[31],"waste.":[32],"However,":[33],"existing":[34],"monitoring":[35,72],"approaches":[36],"often":[37],"lack":[38],"the":[39,140,153],"spatial":[40],"resolution":[41],"or":[42],"robustness":[43],"needed":[44],"for":[45,209],"real\u2010time,":[46],"layer\u2010wise":[47],"assessment.":[48],"This":[49],"study":[50],"addresses":[51],"this":[52],"gap":[53],"by":[54],"investigating":[55],"whether":[56],"high\u2010resolution,":[57],"full\u2010reference":[58],"feature":[59],"comparison":[60],"reliably":[62],"detect":[63],"catastrophic":[64,146],"defects":[65,147],"during":[66,174],"printing.":[67],"We":[68],"propose":[69],"a":[70,100,107,118,164,204],"real\u2010time":[71,197],"framework":[73],"that":[74],"captures":[75],"720":[76],"\u00d7":[77],"1,280":[78],"images":[79,105],"of":[80,117,145],"each":[81,158],"printed":[82],"using":[84,99,123],"an":[85],"onboard":[86],"monocular":[87],"camera":[88,169],"compares":[90],"them":[91],"with":[92,148],"either":[93],"simulated":[94,181],"reference":[95,104],"layers\u2014generated":[96],"from":[97,106,113],"G\u2010code":[98],"calibrated":[101],"Blender":[102],"environment\u2014or":[103],"defect\u2010free":[108],"print.":[109],"Multi\u2010resolution":[110],"embeddings":[111],"extracted":[112],"three":[114],"intermediate":[115],"layers":[116],"modified":[119],"ResNet50":[120],"are":[121],"compared":[122],"L2":[124],"feature\u2010space":[125],"distance":[126],"localise":[128],"anomalous":[129],"regions.":[130],"Across":[131],"24":[132],"experimental":[133],"prints":[134],"containing":[135],"four":[136],"major":[137],"defect":[138,217],"classes,":[139],"system":[141],"achieved":[142],"100%":[143],"zero":[149],"false":[150],"positives":[151],"under":[152],"tested":[154],"conditions,":[155],"while":[156],"processing":[157],"<2":[161],"s":[162],"on":[163],"standard":[165],"CPU.":[166],"Limitations":[167],"include":[168],"blind":[170],"spots,":[171],"lighting":[172],"sensitivity":[173],"early":[175],"layers,":[176],"appearance":[178],"mismatches":[179],"references":[182],"due":[183],"unmodelled":[185],"thermal":[186],"effects.":[187],"Future":[188],"work":[189],"will":[190],"incorporate":[191],"thermo\u2010mechanical":[192],"simulation,":[193],"multi\u2010camera":[194],"configurations,":[195],"corrective":[198],"feedback.":[199],"The":[200],"proposed":[201],"method":[202],"provides":[203],"practical":[205],"efficient":[207],"foundation":[208],"industrial":[210],"FFF":[211],"quality":[212],"assurance":[213],"automated,":[215],"in\u2010situ":[216],"detection.":[218]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-07-23T08:03:31.855105","created_date":"2026-03-10T00:00:00"}