{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4413308340","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-025-01893-8","title":"Specialized curricula for training vision language models in retinal image analysis","display_name":"Specialized curricula for training vision language models in retinal image analysis","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-08-19","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4413308340","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-025-01893-8","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40830259"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01893-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-025-01893-8","pdf_url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-025-01893-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210195431","display_name":"npj Digital Medicine","issn_l":"2398-6352","issn":["2398-6352"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"npj Digital Medicine","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-025-01893-8.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081687968","display_name":"Robbie Holland","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8373-8390"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210109636","display_name":"NIHR Imperial Biomedical Research Centre","ror":"https://ror.org/01kmhx639","country_code":"GB","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I34931013","https://openalex.org/I4210109636"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Robbie Holland","raw_affiliation_strings":["Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom. robbie.holland@stanford.edu","Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom. robbie.holland@stanford.edu","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984","https://openalex.org/I4210109636"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046648419","display_name":"Thomas R. Taylor","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7906-790X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I43439940","display_name":"University of Southampton","ror":"https://ror.org/01ryk1543","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I43439940"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Thomas R. P. Taylor","raw_affiliation_strings":["Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I43439940"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100649924","display_name":"Christopher Holmes","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2018-3732"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1325675289","display_name":"Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust","ror":"https://ror.org/03zaddr67","country_code":"GB","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210150574","display_name":"Moorfields Eye Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/03tb37539","country_code":"GB","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289","https://openalex.org/I4210150574"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I45129253","display_name":"University College London","ror":"https://ror.org/02jx3x895","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I45129253"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Christopher Holmes","raw_affiliation_strings":["Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289","https://openalex.org/I45129253","https://openalex.org/I4210150574"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5045507552","display_name":"Sophie Riedl","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0003-0886"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76134821","display_name":"Medical University of Vienna","ror":"https://ror.org/05n3x4p02","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sophie Riedl","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","Ophthalmic Image Analysis Group (OPTIMA), Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ophthalmic Image Analysis Group (OPTIMA), Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5058738262","display_name":"Julia Mai","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0528-9742"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76134821","display_name":"Medical University of Vienna","ror":"https://ror.org/05n3x4p02","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Julia Mai","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","Ophthalmic Image Analysis Group (OPTIMA), Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ophthalmic Image Analysis Group (OPTIMA), Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077791741","display_name":"Maria Patsiamanidi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I43439940","display_name":"University of Southampton","ror":"https://ror.org/01ryk1543","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I43439940"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Maria Patsiamanidi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I43439940"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5044096249","display_name":"Dimitra Mitsopoulou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5002-1788"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I43439940","display_name":"University of Southampton","ror":"https://ror.org/01ryk1543","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I43439940"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dimitra Mitsopoulou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I43439940"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060816263","display_name":"Paul Hager","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2166-0262"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76134821","display_name":"Medical University of Vienna","ror":"https://ror.org/05n3x4p02","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Paul Hager","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5017979352","display_name":"Philip M\u00fcller","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8186-6479"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76134821","display_name":"Medical University of Vienna","ror":"https://ror.org/05n3x4p02","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Philip M\u00fcller","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085027983","display_name":"Johannes C. Paetzold","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4844-6955"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210109636","display_name":"NIHR Imperial Biomedical Research Centre","ror":"https://ror.org/01kmhx639","country_code":"GB","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I34931013","https://openalex.org/I4210109636"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I62916508","display_name":"Technical University of Munich","ror":"https://ror.org/02kkvpp62","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I62916508"]}],"countries":["DE","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Johannes C. Paetzold","raw_affiliation_strings":["Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom","Chair for AI in Healthcare and Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984","https://openalex.org/I4210109636"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chair for AI in Healthcare and Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I62916508"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5059328359","display_name":"Hendrik P. N. Scholl","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7312-0316"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210165657","display_name":"Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel","ror":"https://ror.org/05e715194","country_code":"CH","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210165657"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1850255","display_name":"University of Basel","ror":"https://ror.org/02s6k3f65","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1850255"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76134821","display_name":"Medical University of Vienna","ror":"https://ror.org/05n3x4p02","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}],"countries":["AT","CH"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hendrik P. N. Scholl","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland","Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel, Basel, Switzerland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1850255"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel, Basel, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210165657"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5089575197","display_name":"Hrvoje Bogunovi\u0107","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9168-0894"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161878677","display_name":"Austrian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence","ror":"https://ror.org/04j47vk14","country_code":"AT","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161878677","https://openalex.org/I4210107880"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hrvoje Bogunovi\u0107","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Artificial Intelligence, Centre for Medical Data Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Artificial Intelligence, Centre for Medical Data Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161878677"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053563726","display_name":"Ursula Schmidt\u2010Erfurth","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7788-7311"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I76134821","display_name":"Medical University of Vienna","ror":"https://ror.org/05n3x4p02","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}],"countries":["AT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ursula Schmidt-Erfurth","raw_affiliation_strings":["Ophthalmic Image Analysis Group (OPTIMA), Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ophthalmic Image Analysis Group (OPTIMA), Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I76134821"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006461848","display_name":"Daniel Rueckert","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5683-5889"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4403386549","display_name":"Munich Center for Machine Learning","ror":"https://ror.org/02nfy3535","country_code":null,"type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4403386549","https://openalex.org/I62916508","https://openalex.org/I8204097"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210109636","display_name":"NIHR Imperial Biomedical Research Centre","ror":"https://ror.org/01kmhx639","country_code":"GB","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I34931013","https://openalex.org/I4210109636"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I62916508","display_name":"Technical University of Munich","ror":"https://ror.org/02kkvpp62","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I62916508"]}],"countries":["DE","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Daniel Rueckert","raw_affiliation_strings":["Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom","Chair for AI in Healthcare and Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany","Munich Center for Machine Learning, Munich, Germany"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984","https://openalex.org/I4210109636"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chair for AI in Healthcare and Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I62916508"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Munich Center for Machine Learning, Munich, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4403386549"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5066434934","display_name":"Sobha Sivaprasad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8952-0659"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I45129253","display_name":"University College London","ror":"https://ror.org/02jx3x895","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I45129253"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210150574","display_name":"Moorfields Eye Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/03tb37539","country_code":"GB","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289","https://openalex.org/I4210150574"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1325675289","display_name":"Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust","ror":"https://ror.org/03zaddr67","country_code":"GB","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sobha Sivaprasad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289","https://openalex.org/I45129253","https://openalex.org/I4210150574"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5072541133","display_name":"Andrew Lotery","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5541-4305"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I43439940","display_name":"University of Southampton","ror":"https://ror.org/01ryk1543","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I43439940"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Andrew J. Lotery","raw_affiliation_strings":["Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I43439940"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005001205","display_name":"Martin J. Menten","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8261-7810"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4403386549","display_name":"Munich Center for Machine Learning","ror":"https://ror.org/02nfy3535","country_code":null,"type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4403386549","https://openalex.org/I62916508","https://openalex.org/I8204097"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210109636","display_name":"NIHR Imperial Biomedical Research Centre","ror":"https://ror.org/01kmhx639","country_code":"GB","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I34931013","https://openalex.org/I4210109636"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I62916508","display_name":"Technical University of Munich","ror":"https://ror.org/02kkvpp62","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I62916508"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}],"countries":["DE","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Martin J. Menten","raw_affiliation_strings":["Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom","Chair for AI in Healthcare and Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany","Munich Center for Machine Learning, Munich, Germany"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984","https://openalex.org/I4210109636"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chair for AI in Healthcare and Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I62916508"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Munich Center for Machine Learning, Munich, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4403386549"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076798733","display_name":"A Toby Prevost","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1723-0796"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1325675289","display_name":"Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust","ror":"https://ror.org/03zaddr67","country_code":"GB","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I45129253","display_name":"University College London","ror":"https://ror.org/02jx3x895","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I45129253"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210150574","display_name":"Moorfields Eye Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/03tb37539","country_code":"GB","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289","https://openalex.org/I4210150574"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Toby Prevost","raw_affiliation_strings":["Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1325675289","https://openalex.org/I45129253","https://openalex.org/I4210150574"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006257131","display_name":"Lars G. Fritsche","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2110-1690"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I27837315","display_name":"University of Michigan\u2013Ann Arbor","ror":"https://ror.org/00jmfr291","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I27837315"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lars Fritsche","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I27837315"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5068154916","display_name":"Kristina Pfau","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3642-3502"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210165657","display_name":"Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel","ror":"https://ror.org/05e715194","country_code":"CH","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210165657"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kristina Pfau","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel, Basel, Switzerland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel, Basel, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210165657"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5014052168","display_name":"Maximilian Pfau","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9761-9640"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135140700","display_name":"University of Bonn","ror":"https://ror.org/041nas322","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135140700"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1850255","display_name":"University of Basel","ror":"https://ror.org/02s6k3f65","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1850255"]}],"countries":["CH","DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Maximilian Pfau","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland","Department of Ophthalmology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1850255"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Ophthalmology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135140700"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":5,"institutions_distinct_count":21,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5081687968"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210109636","https://openalex.org/I47508984"],"apc_list":{"value":3060,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3060},"apc_paid":{"value":3060,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3060},"fwci":4.2786,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9460293,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"8","issue":"1","first_page":"532","last_page":"532"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11438","display_name":"Retinal Imaging and Analysis","score":0.9993000030517578,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11438","display_name":"Retinal Imaging and Analysis","score":0.9993000030517578,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.9970999956130981,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11775","display_name":"COVID-19 diagnosis using AI","score":0.9835000038146973,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blueprint","display_name":"Blueprint","score":0.8342777490615845},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/curriculum","display_name":"Curriculum","score":0.6929585933685303},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/foundation","display_name":"Foundation (evidence)","score":0.6421029567718506},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5491476655006409},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/referral","display_name":"Referral","score":0.5373470187187195},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/macular-degeneration","display_name":"Macular degeneration","score":0.5327810049057007},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medical-education","display_name":"Medical education","score":0.4183207154273987},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medicine","display_name":"Medicine","score":0.4013621509075165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.3428250253200531},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/optometry","display_name":"Optometry","score":0.3386377692222595},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ophthalmology","display_name":"Ophthalmology","score":0.2372211515903473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.20732581615447998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/family-medicine","display_name":"Family medicine","score":0.19408276677131653},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.1279941201210022}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155911762","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q422321","display_name":"Blueprint","level":2,"score":0.8342777490615845},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47177190","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207137","display_name":"Curriculum","level":2,"score":0.6929585933685303},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780966255","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5474306","display_name":"Foundation (evidence)","level":2,"score":0.6421029567718506},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5491476655006409},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776135927","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5242559","display_name":"Referral","level":2,"score":0.5373470187187195},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776403814","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27429789","display_name":"Macular degeneration","level":2,"score":0.5327810049057007},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C509550671","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126945","display_name":"Medical education","level":1,"score":0.4183207154273987},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.4013621509075165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3428250253200531},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119767625","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q618211","display_name":"Optometry","level":1,"score":0.3386377692222595},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118487528","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161437","display_name":"Ophthalmology","level":1,"score":0.2372211515903473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.20732581615447998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C512399662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3505712","display_name":"Family medicine","level":1,"score":0.19408276677131653},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.1279941201210022},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19417346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7922","display_name":"Pedagogy","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95457728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309","display_name":"History","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78519656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101333","display_name":"Mechanical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166957645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23498","display_name":"Archaeology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01893-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-025-01893-8","pdf_url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-025-01893-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210195431","display_name":"npj Digital Medicine","issn_l":"2398-6352","issn":["2398-6352"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"npj Digital Medicine","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:40830259","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40830259","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"NPJ digital medicine","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:6aa0e42be81a4d7fad8034c50a592243","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/6aa0e42be81a4d7fad8034c50a592243","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S112646816","display_name":"SHILAP Revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda","issn_l":"0300-5267","issn":["0300-5267","2340-4078"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"npj Digital Medicine, Vol 8, Iss 1, Pp 1-18 (2025)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:12365215","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/12365215","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"NPJ Digit Med","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41746-025-01893-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-025-01893-8","pdf_url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-025-01893-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210195431","display_name":"npj Digital Medicine","issn_l":"2398-6352","issn":["2398-6352"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"npj Digital Medicine","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.44999998807907104,"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4413308340.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":54,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W180947891","https://openalex.org/W1972642682","https://openalex.org/W2057203552","https://openalex.org/W2069110097","https://openalex.org/W2084413241","https://openalex.org/W2100756624","https://openalex.org/W2109259999","https://openalex.org/W2160226180","https://openalex.org/W2161143583","https://openalex.org/W2296073425","https://openalex.org/W2619383789","https://openalex.org/W2745461083","https://openalex.org/W2761604622","https://openalex.org/W2766820003","https://openalex.org/W2886281300","https://openalex.org/W2962858109","https://openalex.org/W2970971581","https://openalex.org/W3014974815","https://openalex.org/W3035060554","https://openalex.org/W3112701542","https://openalex.org/W3118813946","https://openalex.org/W3120224639","https://openalex.org/W4200305939","https://openalex.org/W4211020962","https://openalex.org/W4221143046","https://openalex.org/W4225323055","https://openalex.org/W4226278401","https://openalex.org/W4281484007","https://openalex.org/W4295951577","https://openalex.org/W4310895557","https://openalex.org/W4319662928","https://openalex.org/W4323066559","https://openalex.org/W4365143687","https://openalex.org/W4366850747","https://openalex.org/W4377966413","https://openalex.org/W4384071683","https://openalex.org/W4385948838","https://openalex.org/W4386697749","https://openalex.org/W4387211014","https://openalex.org/W4389523832","https://openalex.org/W4391159111","https://openalex.org/W4392193048","https://openalex.org/W4392947532","https://openalex.org/W4396494945","https://openalex.org/W4399240659","https://openalex.org/W4400324908","https://openalex.org/W4401397240","https://openalex.org/W4401479535","https://openalex.org/W4403625924","https://openalex.org/W4405081677","https://openalex.org/W6800875267","https://openalex.org/W6854691855","https://openalex.org/W6855698372","https://openalex.org/W6861442871"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4304620183","https://openalex.org/W4412467184","https://openalex.org/W2384575798","https://openalex.org/W2007211730","https://openalex.org/W2265189214","https://openalex.org/W2766654718","https://openalex.org/W2379378785","https://openalex.org/W4396600116","https://openalex.org/W1975337239","https://openalex.org/W1971312788"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Clinicians":[0],"spend":[1],"significant":[2],"time":[3],"reviewing":[4],"medical":[5,44,89,148],"images":[6],"and":[7,13,24,42,91,101],"transcribing":[8],"findings.":[9],"By":[10],"integrating":[11],"visual":[12],"textual":[14],"data,":[15],"foundation":[16,88,144],"models":[17,46,145],"have":[18],"the":[19],"potential":[20],"to":[21,72,78,109,146],"reduce":[22],"workloads":[23],"boost":[25],"efficiency,":[26],"yet":[27],"their":[28],"practical":[29],"clinical":[30,79],"value":[31],"remains":[32],"uncertain.":[33],"In":[34,112],"this":[35],"study,":[36,115],"we":[37,62],"find":[38],"that":[39,120],"OpenAI's":[40],"ChatGPT-4o":[41,92,131],"two":[43,116],"vision-language":[45],"(VLMs)":[47],"significantly":[48,86],"underperform":[49],"ophthalmologists":[50,118],"in":[51,93],"key":[52],"tasks":[53,76],"for":[54,75,142],"age-related":[55],"macular":[56],"degeneration":[57],"(AMD).":[58],"To":[59],"address":[60],"this,":[61],"developed":[63],"a":[64,113,140],"dedicated":[65],"training":[66],"curriculum,":[67],"designed":[68],"by":[69,130],"domain":[70],"specialists,":[71],"optimize":[73],"VLMs":[74,90],"related":[77],"decision":[80],"making.":[81],"The":[82],"resulting":[83],"model,":[84],"RetinaVLM-Specialist,":[85],"outperforms":[87],"AMD":[94],"disease":[95],"staging":[96],"(F1:":[97],"0.63":[98],"vs.":[99,104,133],"0.33)":[100],"referral":[102],"(0.67":[103],"0.50),":[105],"achieving":[106],"performance":[107],"comparable":[108],"junior":[110],"ophthalmologists.":[111],"reader":[114],"senior":[117],"confirmed":[119],"RetinaVLM's":[121],"reports":[122],"were":[123],"substantially":[124],"more":[125],"accurate":[126],"than":[127],"those":[128],"written":[129],"(64.3%":[132],"14.3%).":[134],"Overall,":[135],"our":[136],"curriculum-based":[137],"approach":[138],"offers":[139],"blueprint":[141],"adapting":[143],"real-world":[147],"applications.":[149]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-03-20T23:20:44.827607","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}