{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2141829400","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1351324999002144","title":"A definition and short history of Language Engineering","display_name":"A definition and short history of Language Engineering","publication_year":1999,"publication_date":"1999-03-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2141829400","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1351324999002144","mag":"2141829400"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1017/s1351324999002144","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1351324999002144","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S18088403","display_name":"Natural Language Engineering","issn_l":"1351-3249","issn":["1351-3249","1469-8110"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311721","host_organization_name":"Cambridge University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311721","https://openalex.org/P4310311702"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cambridge University Press","University of Cambridge"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Natural Language Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000140583","display_name":"Hamish Cunningham","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5901-5483"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I91136226","display_name":"University of Sheffield","ror":"https://ror.org/05krs5044","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I91136226"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"HAMISH CUNNINGHAM","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute for Language, Speech and Hearing (ILASH), and Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; e-mail:","Institute for Language, Speech and Hearing (ILASH), and Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK","e-mail:"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute for Language, Speech and Hearing (ILASH), and Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; e-mail:","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I91136226"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute for Language, Speech and Hearing (ILASH), and Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I91136226"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"e-mail:","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5000140583"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I91136226"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":3.5683,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":45,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9311149,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"5","issue":"1","first_page":"1","last_page":"16"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10215","display_name":"Semantic Web and Ontologies","score":0.9962999820709229,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9958000183105469,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8237220048904419},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.5680021047592163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/field","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","score":0.5370774269104004},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/identity","display_name":"Identity (music)","score":0.5360373258590698},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computational-linguistics","display_name":"Computational linguistics","score":0.4556553363800049},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/history-of-computing","display_name":"History of computing","score":0.439877986907959},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/focus","display_name":"Focus (optics)","score":0.4284452199935913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-science","display_name":"Data science","score":0.4220314025878906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-engineering","display_name":"Software engineering","score":0.36900794506073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.34298795461654663},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/history","display_name":"History","score":0.13404405117034912},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithm","display_name":"Algorithm","score":0.08502593636512756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/aesthetics","display_name":"Aesthetics","score":0.08268243074417114},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/archaeology","display_name":"Archaeology","score":0.07497230172157288}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8237220048904419},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.5680021047592163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9652623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190109","display_name":"Field (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.5370774269104004},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778355321","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17079427","display_name":"Identity (music)","level":2,"score":0.5360373258590698},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155092808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182557","display_name":"Computational linguistics","level":2,"score":0.4556553363800049},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778653333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2735691","display_name":"History of computing","level":2,"score":0.439877986907959},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192209626","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190909","display_name":"Focus (optics)","level":2,"score":0.4284452199935913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.4220314025878906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115903868","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q80993","display_name":"Software engineering","level":1,"score":0.36900794506073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.34298795461654663},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95457728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309","display_name":"History","level":0,"score":0.13404405117034912},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.08502593636512756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107038049","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35986","display_name":"Aesthetics","level":1,"score":0.08268243074417114},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166957645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23498","display_name":"Archaeology","level":1,"score":0.07497230172157288},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202444582","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q837863","display_name":"Pure mathematics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1017/s1351324999002144","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s1351324999002144","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S18088403","display_name":"Natural Language Engineering","issn_l":"1351-3249","issn":["1351-3249","1469-8110"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311721","host_organization_name":"Cambridge University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311721","https://openalex.org/P4310311702"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cambridge University Press","University of Cambridge"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Natural Language Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8100000023841858,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320309370","display_name":"University of Pennsylvania","ror":"https://ror.org/00b30xv10"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":47,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W103642297","https://openalex.org/W1516154677","https://openalex.org/W1516391399","https://openalex.org/W1540589956","https://openalex.org/W1541357200","https://openalex.org/W1547463271","https://openalex.org/W1552513054","https://openalex.org/W1632114991","https://openalex.org/W1649645444","https://openalex.org/W1731571041","https://openalex.org/W1924403233","https://openalex.org/W1971763646","https://openalex.org/W1986450680","https://openalex.org/W1991503118","https://openalex.org/W1994851566","https://openalex.org/W2005814556","https://openalex.org/W2008112715","https://openalex.org/W2029108272","https://openalex.org/W2030458294","https://openalex.org/W2047283406","https://openalex.org/W2047464933","https://openalex.org/W2061618905","https://openalex.org/W2068210077","https://openalex.org/W2068882115","https://openalex.org/W2081687495","https://openalex.org/W2087678897","https://openalex.org/W2088210124","https://openalex.org/W2089188520","https://openalex.org/W2102381086","https://openalex.org/W2103943904","https://openalex.org/W2111108424","https://openalex.org/W2114930830","https://openalex.org/W2116780029","https://openalex.org/W2117400858","https://openalex.org/W2131897722","https://openalex.org/W2153439141","https://openalex.org/W2157127619","https://openalex.org/W2157954793","https://openalex.org/W2161066292","https://openalex.org/W2161349060","https://openalex.org/W2163918411","https://openalex.org/W2165727990","https://openalex.org/W2316904474","https://openalex.org/W2341078838","https://openalex.org/W3003193617","https://openalex.org/W3144495421","https://openalex.org/W3149885309"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3134414667","https://openalex.org/W2012531322","https://openalex.org/W2086401034","https://openalex.org/W2913241084","https://openalex.org/W2785900585","https://openalex.org/W2353730437","https://openalex.org/W2490303674","https://openalex.org/W3141531990","https://openalex.org/W2609066826","https://openalex.org/W2810752900"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0],"paper":[1],"discusses":[2],"the":[3,39,82],"nature,":[4],"history":[5],"and":[6,19,22,50,56],"current":[7],"characteristics":[8],"of":[9,54,64,68,81],"Language":[10,17],"Engineering,":[11],"which":[12,23],"is":[13,24,74],"contrasted":[14],"with":[15],"Natural":[16],"Processing":[18],"Computational":[20],"Linguistics,":[21],"shown":[25],"to":[26,59],"have":[27],"attained":[28],"its":[29,44,57],"own":[30],"distinct":[31],"identity":[32],"in":[33,38,71],"recent":[34],"years.":[35],"Major":[36],"trends":[37],"field":[40],"are":[41,77],"examined,":[42],"including":[43],"focus":[45],"on":[46,51],"large-scale":[47],"practical":[48],"tasks":[49],"quantitative":[52],"evaluation":[53],"progress,":[55],"willingness":[58],"embrace":[60],"a":[61],"diverse":[62],"range":[63],"techniques.":[65],"The":[66],"importance":[67],"software":[69],"engineering":[70],"this":[72],"context":[73],"noted,":[75],"as":[76],"some":[78],"sociological":[79],"aspects":[80],"practitioner":[83],"group.":[84]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":4}],"updated_date":"2025-11-06T03:46:38.306776","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}