{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7167807184","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867","title":"Explainable ballistocardiogram signal classification with transformers","display_name":"Explainable ballistocardiogram signal classification with transformers","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-07-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7167807184","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2506067282","display_name":"SoftwareX","issn_l":"2352-7110","issn":["2352-7110"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"SoftwareX","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"software-paper","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5140305713","display_name":"Ibrahim Sadek","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I84058292","display_name":"Helwan University","ror":"https://ror.org/00h55v928","country_code":"EG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I84058292"]}],"countries":["EG"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ibrahim Sadek","raw_affiliation_strings":["Biomedical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Capital University (formerly Helwan University), Helwan, Cairo, Egypt"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Biomedical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Capital University (formerly Helwan University), Helwan, Cairo, Egypt","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I84058292"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5011574206","display_name":"Shafiq Ul Rehman","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2266-218X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210156733","display_name":"Kingdom University","ror":"https://ror.org/04g3hr176","country_code":"BH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210156733"]}],"countries":["BH"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shafiq Ul Rehman","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Information Technology, Kingdom University, Riffa, Kingdom of Bahrain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Information Technology, Kingdom University, Riffa, Kingdom of Bahrain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210156733"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111197448","display_name":"Lamees Mahmoud","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I84058292","display_name":"Helwan University","ror":"https://ror.org/00h55v928","country_code":"EG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I84058292"]}],"countries":["EG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lamees N. Mahmoud","raw_affiliation_strings":["Biomedical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Capital University (formerly Helwan University), Helwan, Cairo, Egypt"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Biomedical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Capital University (formerly Helwan University), Helwan, Cairo, Egypt","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I84058292"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5140305713"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I84058292"],"apc_list":{"value":1200,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1200},"apc_paid":{"value":1200,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1200},"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"35","issue":null,"first_page":"102867","last_page":"102867"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11021","display_name":"ECG Monitoring and Analysis","score":0.4959999918937683,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2705","display_name":"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11021","display_name":"ECG Monitoring and Analysis","score":0.4959999918937683,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2705","display_name":"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12419","display_name":"Phonocardiography and Auscultation Techniques","score":0.2013999968767166,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2740","display_name":"Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10821","display_name":"Cardiovascular Function and Risk Factors","score":0.04740000143647194,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2705","display_name":"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transformer","display_name":"Transformer","score":0.6017000079154968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.4219000041484833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/signal","display_name":"SIGNAL (programming language)","score":0.40139999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/signal-processing","display_name":"Signal processing","score":0.39239999651908875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bioacoustics","display_name":"Bioacoustics","score":0.29350000619888306}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6887999773025513},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66322947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658","display_name":"Transformer","level":3,"score":0.6017000079154968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5177000164985657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.4219000041484833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779843651","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7390335","display_name":"SIGNAL (programming language)","level":2,"score":0.40139999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104267543","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208163","display_name":"Signal processing","level":3,"score":0.39239999651908875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.336899995803833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.3244999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34951282","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q864191","display_name":"Bioacoustics","level":2,"score":0.29350000619888306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C133770746","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q856535","display_name":"Current transformer","level":4,"score":0.28769999742507935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24326235","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126095","display_name":"Electronic engineering","level":1,"score":0.28139999508857727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137270730","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120811","display_name":"Detection theory","level":3,"score":0.26010000705718994}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2506067282","display_name":"SoftwareX","issn_l":"2352-7110","issn":["2352-7110"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"SoftwareX","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2026.102867","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2506067282","display_name":"SoftwareX","issn_l":"2352-7110","issn":["2352-7110"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"SoftwareX","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Affordable and clean energy","score":0.533810555934906,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/7"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4558449053","display_name":"Kingdom University","ror":null}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":11,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2141007997","https://openalex.org/W2148143831","https://openalex.org/W2148325642","https://openalex.org/W2169918686","https://openalex.org/W2811152287","https://openalex.org/W3003257820","https://openalex.org/W3045706881","https://openalex.org/W3127637041","https://openalex.org/W4220780167","https://openalex.org/W4403155911","https://openalex.org/W4412686040"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Ballistocardiography":[0],"(BCG)":[1],"is":[2,211,228],"a":[3,52,68,141,164],"non-invasive":[4],"technique":[5],"for":[6,57,113,122,213,221],"cardiovascular":[7],"monitoring":[8],"that":[9,75,130],"measures":[10],"body":[11],"movements":[12],"induced":[13],"by":[14,29,134],"cardiac":[15],"ejection":[16],"and":[17,32,96,117,180,196,206,210,217,239],"blood":[18],"flow.":[19],"However,":[20],"BCG":[21,42,50,62,222],"recordings":[22],"in":[23],"real-world":[24],"settings":[25],"are":[26,242],"frequently":[27],"contaminated":[28],"motion":[30],"artifacts":[31],"other":[33],"noise":[34],"sources,":[35],"necessitating":[36],"reliable":[37],"automated":[38],"classification":[39,59,233],"of":[40,60],"usable":[41],"segments":[43],"versus":[44],"non-BCG":[45],"artifacts.":[46],"This":[47],"paper":[48],"presents":[49],"classification,":[51],"comprehensive":[53,182],"Python-based":[54],"software":[55,201],"pipeline":[56,66,227],"binary":[58],"annotated":[61,102],"time":[63],"intervals.":[64],"The":[65,200],"implements":[67],"rigorously":[69],"leakage-safe":[70],"nested":[71,105],"patient-wise":[72,90,120,165],"cross-validation":[73,106],"framework":[74],"prevents":[76],"data":[77,91,127],"leakage":[78,237],"through":[79,171],"strict":[80],"subject":[81],"separation":[82],"at":[83],"all":[84,101],"stages.":[85],"Key":[86],"features":[87],"include:":[88],"(1)":[89],"preprocessing":[92],"with":[93,107],"band-pass":[94],"filtering":[95],"fixed-length":[97],"chunk":[98],"extraction":[99],"from":[100],"intervals;":[103],"(2)":[104],"an":[108,118],"outer":[109],"10-fold":[110],"GroupKFold":[111],"loop":[112,121],"unbiased":[114],"performance":[115],"estimation":[116],"inner":[119],"hyperparameter":[123],"selection;":[124],"(3)":[125],"capped":[126],"augmentation":[128],"(Option-B)":[129],"addresses":[131],"class":[132,138],"imbalance":[133],"augmenting":[135],"the":[136,149,226],"minority":[137],"up":[139],"to":[140,230],"configurable":[142],"maximum":[143],"oversampling":[144],"factor":[145],"while":[146],"optionally":[147],"downsampling":[148],"majority":[150],"class;":[151],"(4)":[152],"post-hoc":[153],"probability":[154,240],"calibration":[155,166,187,192],"using":[156],"either":[157],"temperature":[158],"scaling":[159,162],"or":[160],"Platt":[161],"on":[163,176],"split;":[167],"(5)":[168],"optional":[169],"explainability":[170],"Integrated":[172],"Gradients":[173],"computed":[174],"only":[175],"held-out":[177],"test":[178],"samples;":[179],"(6)":[181],"reporting":[183],"including":[184],"reliability":[185,241],"diagrams,":[186],"metrics":[188],"(Brier":[189],"score,":[190],"expected":[191],"error,":[193],"negative":[194],"log-likelihood),":[195],"detailed":[197],"fold-wise":[198],"documentation.":[199],"supports":[202],"both":[203],"1D":[204],"CNN":[205],"convolutional":[207],"Transformer":[208],"architectures":[209],"designed":[212],"methodological":[214],"rigor,":[215],"reproducibility,":[216],"extensibility.":[218],"While":[219],"developed":[220],"signal":[223],"quality":[224],"assessment,":[225],"applicable":[229],"any":[231],"time-series":[232],"problem":[234],"where":[235],"patient/subject":[236],"prevention":[238],"critical":[243],"considerations.":[244]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2026-07-10T00:00:00"}