{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7121385775","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","title":"On scientific foundation models: Rigorous definitions, key applications, and a comprehensive survey","display_name":"On scientific foundation models: Rigorous definitions, key applications, and a comprehensive survey","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7121385775","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41547123"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S123019304","display_name":"Neural Networks","issn_l":"0893-6080","issn":["0893-6080","1879-2782"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Neural Networks","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122714333","display_name":"Sidharth S. Menon","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107077323","display_name":"Worcester Polytechnic Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/05ejpqr48","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107077323"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sidharth S. Menon","raw_affiliation_strings":["Aerospace Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Aerospace Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107077323"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122727110","display_name":"Trishit Mondal","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107077323","display_name":"Worcester Polytechnic Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/05ejpqr48","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107077323"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Trishit Mondal","raw_affiliation_strings":["Aerospace Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Aerospace Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107077323"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5020117196","display_name":"Shuvayan Brahmachary","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4383-0875"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210094045","display_name":"Shell (India)","ror":"https://ror.org/00ntq6s45","country_code":"IN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210094045","https://openalex.org/I7923278"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7923278","display_name":"Shell (Netherlands)","ror":"https://ror.org/00b5m4j81","country_code":"NL","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I7923278"]}],"countries":["IN","NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shuvayan Brahmachary","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computational Science Group, Shell India Markets Pvt. Ltd. (Shell Projects & Technology), India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computational Science Group, Shell India Markets Pvt. Ltd. (Shell Projects & Technology), India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210094045","https://openalex.org/I7923278"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054319229","display_name":"Aniruddha Panda","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9447-9547"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210094045","display_name":"Shell (India)","ror":"https://ror.org/00ntq6s45","country_code":"IN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210094045","https://openalex.org/I7923278"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7923278","display_name":"Shell (Netherlands)","ror":"https://ror.org/00b5m4j81","country_code":"NL","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I7923278"]}],"countries":["IN","NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Aniruddha Panda","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computational Science Group, Shell India Markets Pvt. Ltd. (Shell Projects & Technology), India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computational Science Group, Shell India Markets Pvt. Ltd. (Shell Projects & Technology), India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210094045","https://openalex.org/I7923278"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122710905","display_name":"Subodh M. Joshi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210094045","display_name":"Shell (India)","ror":"https://ror.org/00ntq6s45","country_code":"IN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210094045","https://openalex.org/I7923278"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7923278","display_name":"Shell (Netherlands)","ror":"https://ror.org/00b5m4j81","country_code":"NL","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I7923278"]}],"countries":["IN","NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Subodh M. Joshi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computational Science Group, Shell India Markets Pvt. Ltd. (Shell Projects & Technology), India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computational Science Group, Shell India Markets Pvt. Ltd. (Shell Projects & Technology), India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210094045","https://openalex.org/I7923278"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5113134772","display_name":"Kaushic Kalyanaraman","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5947-1016"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210094045","display_name":"Shell (India)","ror":"https://ror.org/00ntq6s45","country_code":"IN","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210094045","https://openalex.org/I7923278"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I7923278","display_name":"Shell (Netherlands)","ror":"https://ror.org/00b5m4j81","country_code":"NL","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I7923278"]}],"countries":["IN","NL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kaushic Kalyanaraman","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computational Science Group, Shell India Markets Pvt. Ltd. (Shell Projects & Technology), India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computational Science Group, Shell India Markets Pvt. Ltd. (Shell Projects & Technology), India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210094045","https://openalex.org/I7923278"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5061905151","display_name":"Ameya D. Jagtap","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8831-1000"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107077323","display_name":"Worcester Polytechnic Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/05ejpqr48","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107077323"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ameya D. Jagtap","raw_affiliation_strings":["Aerospace Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA. Electronic address: ajagtap@wpi.edu"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8831-1000","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Aerospace Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA. Electronic address: ajagtap@wpi.edu","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107077323"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":7,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5061905151"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107077323"],"apc_list":{"value":3350,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3350},"apc_paid":{"value":3350,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3350},"fwci":25.3541,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99461047,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":98,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"198","issue":null,"first_page":"108567","last_page":"108567"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11948","display_name":"Machine Learning in Materials Science","score":0.7803000211715698,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2505","display_name":"Materials Chemistry"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/25","display_name":"Materials Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11948","display_name":"Machine Learning in Materials Science","score":0.7803000211715698,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2505","display_name":"Materials Chemistry"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/25","display_name":"Materials Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11206","display_name":"Model Reduction and Neural Networks","score":0.08640000224113464,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3109","display_name":"Statistical and Nonlinear Physics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11986","display_name":"Scientific Computing and Data Management","score":0.012000000104308128,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1802","display_name":"Information Systems and Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/operationalization","display_name":"Operationalization","score":0.6294999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.5230000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robustness","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","score":0.47440001368522644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transformative-learning","display_name":"Transformative learning","score":0.4636000096797943},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/domain","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","score":0.44850000739097595},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scientific-discovery","display_name":"Scientific discovery","score":0.42089998722076416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/robotics","display_name":"Robotics","score":0.3882000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.37040001153945923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/open-research","display_name":"Open research","score":0.3434999883174896}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7080000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9354725","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q286017","display_name":"Operationalization","level":2,"score":0.6294999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.5404999852180481},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.5230000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C539667460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2414942","display_name":"Management science","level":1,"score":0.4796999990940094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.47440001368522644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70587473","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7834111","display_name":"Transformative learning","level":2,"score":0.4636000096797943},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.46209999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36503486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11235244","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","level":2,"score":0.44850000739097595},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984917352","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12772819","display_name":"Scientific discovery","level":2,"score":0.42089998722076416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34413123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170978","display_name":"Robotics","level":3,"score":0.3882000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.37040001153945923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778464652","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309849","display_name":"Open research","level":2,"score":0.3434999883174896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58642233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8269924","display_name":"Taxonomy (biology)","level":2,"score":0.34139999747276306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.3325999975204468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66024118","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1122506","display_name":"Computational model","level":2,"score":0.320499986410141},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41065033","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2825412","display_name":"Adversary","level":2,"score":0.31380000710487366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780598303","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q65921492","display_name":"Flexibility (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.31380000710487366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112930515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4389547","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","level":1,"score":0.3091999888420105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207685749","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2088941","display_name":"Domain knowledge","level":2,"score":0.3073999881744385},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777362162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5594431","display_name":"Grand Challenges","level":2,"score":0.29600000381469727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177212765","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q627335","display_name":"Workflow","level":2,"score":0.289900004863739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23213167","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2351730","display_name":"Scientific progress","level":2,"score":0.2824999988079071},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780966255","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5474306","display_name":"Foundation (evidence)","level":2,"score":0.2800999879837036},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C32230216","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7882499","display_name":"Uncertainty quantification","level":2,"score":0.2694999873638153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776035091","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7928819","display_name":"Viewpoints","level":2,"score":0.2556000053882599},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201995342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q682496","display_name":"Systems engineering","level":1,"score":0.2517000138759613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.250900000333786}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000077321","descriptor_name":"Deep Learning","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D004738","descriptor_name":"Engineering","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D011795","descriptor_name":"Surveys and Questionnaires","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012586","descriptor_name":"Science","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D016571","descriptor_name":"Neural Networks, Computer","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true}],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S123019304","display_name":"Neural Networks","issn_l":"0893-6080","issn":["0893-6080","1879-2782"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Neural Networks","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:41547123","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41547123","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Neural networks : the official journal of the International Neural Network Society","raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neunet.2026.108567","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S123019304","display_name":"Neural Networks","issn_l":"0893-6080","issn":["0893-6080","1879-2782"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Neural Networks","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Climate action","score":0.8655793070793152,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/13"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":87,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1975147762","https://openalex.org/W2056435747","https://openalex.org/W2128158076","https://openalex.org/W2139709933","https://openalex.org/W2151554678","https://openalex.org/W2165698076","https://openalex.org/W2193503481","https://openalex.org/W2328479868","https://openalex.org/W2611772571","https://openalex.org/W2639728117","https://openalex.org/W2897285410","https://openalex.org/W2899283552","https://openalex.org/W2909899137","https://openalex.org/W2913229523","https://openalex.org/W2919958648","https://openalex.org/W2948551291","https://openalex.org/W2979786244","https://openalex.org/W2980395728","https://openalex.org/W2998366519","https://openalex.org/W3015865829","https://openalex.org/W3023937119","https://openalex.org/W3025949386","https://openalex.org/W3041133507","https://openalex.org/W3098546160","https://openalex.org/W3104750411","https://openalex.org/W3105152113","https://openalex.org/W3155036733","https://openalex.org/W3161200675","https://openalex.org/W3164024600","https://openalex.org/W3197473870","https://openalex.org/W3206859690","https://openalex.org/W4200119169","https://openalex.org/W4210892419","https://openalex.org/W4213444041","https://openalex.org/W4220745193","https://openalex.org/W4283321413","https://openalex.org/W4294068833","https://openalex.org/W4296126282","https://openalex.org/W4297243391","https://openalex.org/W4313485929","https://openalex.org/W4317434745","https://openalex.org/W4321090296","https://openalex.org/W4327519603","https://openalex.org/W4380791595","https://openalex.org/W4385430679","https://openalex.org/W4386280222","https://openalex.org/W4386859252","https://openalex.org/W4387026640","https://openalex.org/W4387206291","https://openalex.org/W4388455891","https://openalex.org/W4388654737","https://openalex.org/W4389132751","https://openalex.org/W4389280861","https://openalex.org/W4392316883","https://openalex.org/W4395021123","https://openalex.org/W4395055639","https://openalex.org/W4399387478","https://openalex.org/W4399594884","https://openalex.org/W4399779937","https://openalex.org/W4400880443","https://openalex.org/W4402023919","https://openalex.org/W4402675562","https://openalex.org/W4402827768","https://openalex.org/W4402890475","https://openalex.org/W4404511389","https://openalex.org/W4405926581","https://openalex.org/W4406472463","https://openalex.org/W4407069087","https://openalex.org/W4407479096","https://openalex.org/W4407900973","https://openalex.org/W4408196005","https://openalex.org/W4408360670","https://openalex.org/W4408815288","https://openalex.org/W4408941147","https://openalex.org/W4410115318","https://openalex.org/W4410551352","https://openalex.org/W4411160688","https://openalex.org/W4411666763","https://openalex.org/W4411857531","https://openalex.org/W4412944812","https://openalex.org/W4413308220","https://openalex.org/W4413905377","https://openalex.org/W4414273932","https://openalex.org/W4415798479","https://openalex.org/W4416146665","https://openalex.org/W4417351823","https://openalex.org/W7115930845"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Scientific":[0],"Foundation":[1],"Models":[2],"(SciFMs)":[3],"represent":[4],"a":[5,55,104,142],"transformative":[6],"paradigm":[7],"for":[8,79,227,240],"addressing":[9],"complex":[10],"scientific":[11,231],"and":[12,19,31,72,114,125,134,150,175,183,209,212,233],"engineering":[13],"problems":[14],"by":[15],"leveraging":[16],"large-scale":[17],"pretraining":[18],"deep":[20],"learning":[21,112],"architectures.":[22],"Unlike":[23],"traditional":[24],"numerical":[25],"solvers,":[26],"which":[27,81],"require":[28],"problem-specific":[29],"discretization":[30],"extensive":[32],"parameter":[33],"tuning,":[34],"SciFMs":[35,107,118,166,228],"aim":[36],"to":[37,84,138,159,218,229],"learn":[38],"generalizable":[39],"representations":[40],"of":[41,54,106,153,204,215],"physical":[42,131],"laws,":[43],"thereby":[44,75],"enabling":[45],"broad":[46],"applicability":[47],"with":[48,207],"minimal":[49],"retraining.":[50],"In":[51],"the":[52,86,98,146,151,192,202,213],"absence":[53],"rigorous":[56,77],"definition,":[57],"this":[58,241],"work":[59,163,242],"categorizes":[60],"their":[61],"capabilities":[62],"into":[63],"four":[64],"key":[65],"dimensions-domain":[66],"adaptation,":[67,71],"domain":[68,205],"generalization,":[69],"problem":[70,73],"generalization;":[74],"providing":[76],"definitions":[78],"SciFMs,":[80],"we":[82,95],"refer":[83],"as":[85],"sufficient":[87],"conditions.":[88,100],"To":[89],"operationalize":[90],"these":[91,222],"conditions":[92],"in":[93,122],"practice,":[94],"further":[96,196],"introduce":[97],"necessary":[99],"We":[101,195],"also":[102],"propose":[103],"taxonomy":[105],"based":[108],"on":[109],"model":[110],"architecture,":[111],"objectives,":[113],"training":[115],"strategies.":[116],"Although":[117],"demonstrate":[119],"remarkable":[120],"potential":[121],"computational":[123,148],"science":[124],"engineering,":[126],"several":[127],"challenges":[128,223],"persist.":[129],"Ensuring":[130],"consistency,":[132],"interpretability,":[133],"robustness":[135],"under":[136,191],"extrapolation":[137],"extreme":[139],"regimes":[140],"remains":[141],"critical":[143,226],"hurdle.":[144],"Furthermore,":[145],"significant":[147],"demands":[149],"lack":[152],"standardized":[154],"benchmarks":[155],"present":[156],"substantial":[157],"barriers":[158],"widespread":[160],"adoption.":[161],"This":[162],"surveys":[164],"existing":[165],"across":[167],"diverse":[168],"domains-including":[169],"chemistry,":[170],"materials":[171],"science,":[172,186],"biology,":[173],"climate":[174],"weather,":[176],"Earth":[177],"observation,":[178],"geophysics,":[179],"chaotic":[180],"dynamics,":[181],"robotics":[182],"control,":[184],"nuclear":[185],"etc.,":[187],"while":[188],"categorizing":[189],"them":[190],"proposed":[193],"definitions.":[194],"outline":[197],"open":[198],"research":[199],"directions,":[200],"emphasizing":[201],"integration":[203],"knowledge":[206],"data-":[208],"physics-driven":[210],"approaches":[211],"development":[214],"efficient":[216],"architectures":[217],"enhance":[219],"generalization.":[220],"Addressing":[221],"will":[224],"be":[225],"accelerate":[230],"discovery":[232],"deliver":[234],"real-world":[235],"impact.":[236],"The":[237],"GitHub":[238],"repository":[239],"is":[243],"available":[244],"at":[245],"https://github.com/ParamIntelligence/Awesome-Scientific-Foundation-Models.":[246]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-05-05T08:41:31.759640","created_date":"2026-01-11T00:00:00"}