{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7134128894","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963","title":"Interpretable semi-supervised 3D deep anomaly detection for surface defect localization in wire-laser directed energy deposition using point clouds","display_name":"Interpretable semi-supervised 3D deep anomaly detection for surface defect localization in wire-laser directed energy deposition using point clouds","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-07","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7134128894","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S13144211","display_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","issn_l":"0957-4174","issn":["0957-4174","1873-6793"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128320877","display_name":"Zhiyuan Wang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98677209","display_name":"University of Edinburgh","ror":"https://ror.org/01nrxwf90","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhiyuan Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute for Materials and Processes, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute for Materials and Processes, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128284671","display_name":"Yang Gao","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I889458895","display_name":"University of Hong Kong","ror":"https://ror.org/02zhqgq86","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I889458895"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yang Gao","raw_affiliation_strings":["Rongsu Technology Ltd, Suzhou, China","Smart Manufacturing Thrust, Systems Hub, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Guangzhou, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2331-4574","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Rongsu Technology Ltd, Suzhou, China","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Smart Manufacturing Thrust, Systems Hub, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Guangzhou, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079","https://openalex.org/I889458895"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128291004","display_name":"Long Ye","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98677209","display_name":"University of Edinburgh","ror":"https://ror.org/01nrxwf90","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Long Ye","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute for Materials and Processes, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1553-3267","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute for Materials and Processes, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128295192","display_name":"Cheng Guo","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I180726961","display_name":"Shenzhen University","ror":"https://ror.org/01vy4gh70","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I180726961"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Cheng Guo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Shenzhen Key Laboratory of High-performance Nontraditional Manufacturing, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Shenzhen Key Laboratory of High-performance Nontraditional Manufacturing, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I180726961"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5128282849","display_name":"Nan Yu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3131625388","display_name":"University Town of Shenzhen","ror":"https://ror.org/05f5j6225","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3131625388"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I98677209","display_name":"University of Edinburgh","ror":"https://ror.org/01nrxwf90","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"]}],"countries":["CN","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nan Yu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Institute for Materials and Processes, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK","National Key Laboratory of Laser Spatial Information, Harbin Institute of Technology, Xili University Town, HIT campus, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5684-1752","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Institute for Materials and Processes, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"National Key Laboratory of Laser Spatial Information, Harbin Institute of Technology, Xili University Town, HIT campus, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3131625388"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5128291004"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I98677209"],"apc_list":{"value":3220,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3220},"apc_paid":{"value":3220,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3220},"fwci":4.3899,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92329451,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"317","issue":null,"first_page":"131963","last_page":"131963"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10705","display_name":"Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes","score":0.41040000319480896,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2210","display_name":"Mechanical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10705","display_name":"Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes","score":0.41040000319480896,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2210","display_name":"Mechanical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11948","display_name":"Machine Learning in Materials Science","score":0.0843999981880188,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2505","display_name":"Materials Chemistry"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/25","display_name":"Materials Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10834","display_name":"Welding Techniques and Residual Stresses","score":0.06599999964237213,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2210","display_name":"Mechanical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/surface","display_name":"Surface (topology)","score":0.5766000151634216},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/point-cloud","display_name":"Point cloud","score":0.5716999769210815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/energy","display_name":"Energy (signal processing)","score":0.5623999834060669},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/point","display_name":"Point (geometry)","score":0.4916999936103821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deposition","display_name":"Deposition (geology)","score":0.4494999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/anomaly-detection","display_name":"Anomaly detection","score":0.4009000062942505}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776799497","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q484298","display_name":"Surface (topology)","level":2,"score":0.5766000151634216},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C131979681","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1899648","display_name":"Point cloud","level":2,"score":0.5716999769210815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186370098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q442787","display_name":"Energy (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.5623999834060669},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28719098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44946","display_name":"Point (geometry)","level":2,"score":0.4916999936103821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C64297162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1987070","display_name":"Deposition (geology)","level":3,"score":0.4494999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4336000084877014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C739882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560506","display_name":"Anomaly detection","level":2,"score":0.4009000062942505},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3846000134944916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.3801000118255615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127313418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1069","display_name":"Geology","level":0,"score":0.37630000710487366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12997251","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q567560","display_name":"Anomaly (physics)","level":2,"score":0.3598000109195709},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.34619998931884766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C20885615","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q825595","display_name":"Surface reconstruction","level":3,"score":0.3395000100135803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.3379000127315521},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192562407","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228736","display_name":"Materials science","level":0,"score":0.28529998660087585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984999661","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q603159","display_name":"Surface fitting","level":3,"score":0.26339998841285706}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S13144211","display_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","issn_l":"0957-4174","issn":["0957-4174","1873-6793"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131963","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S13144211","display_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","issn_l":"0957-4174","issn":["0957-4174","1873-6793"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.6232802271842957,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/13","display_name":"Climate action"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320005","display_name":"Royal Academy of Engineering","ror":"https://ror.org/0526snb40"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320006","display_name":"Royal Society","ror":"https://ror.org/03wnrjx87"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":29,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1615015489","https://openalex.org/W1990077866","https://openalex.org/W2025138352","https://openalex.org/W2028349249","https://openalex.org/W2031489346","https://openalex.org/W2034810583","https://openalex.org/W2049981393","https://openalex.org/W2165698076","https://openalex.org/W2416643905","https://openalex.org/W2618530766","https://openalex.org/W2738773573","https://openalex.org/W2782812883","https://openalex.org/W2806388820","https://openalex.org/W2896511193","https://openalex.org/W2904619063","https://openalex.org/W2950932307","https://openalex.org/W2981024507","https://openalex.org/W3024762880","https://openalex.org/W3049618663","https://openalex.org/W3089028909","https://openalex.org/W3165643143","https://openalex.org/W4224010857","https://openalex.org/W4313474550","https://openalex.org/W4321367134","https://openalex.org/W4323661854","https://openalex.org/W4394997340","https://openalex.org/W4408943545","https://openalex.org/W4412176577","https://openalex.org/W4415478859"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Wire-laser":[0],"directed":[1],"energy":[2],"deposition":[3],"(WL-DED)":[4],"enables":[5],"the":[6,119,136,143],"fabrication":[7],"of":[8,78,125],"large-scale":[9],"metallic":[10],"components":[11,56],"but":[12],"frequently":[13],"suffers":[14],"from":[15],"process-induced":[16],"surface":[17,50,80],"defects":[18,32],"that":[19,135,164,172],"hinder":[20],"part":[21],"quality":[22,210],"and":[23,35,52,74,92,103,176,182,205],"increase":[24],"post-processing":[25],"costs.":[26],"Automated":[27],"inspection":[28,204],"is":[29],"challenging":[30],"because":[31],"are":[33,97,111],"diverse":[34],"rare,":[36],"making":[37],"large":[38],"labelled":[39],"datasets":[40],"impractical.":[41],"This":[42],"paper":[43],"proposes":[44],"an":[45],"interpretable":[46],"semi-supervised":[47,75],"framework":[48,188],"for":[49,202],"detection":[51],"localization":[53,151],"on":[54,100,130],"WL-DED":[55,131],"using":[57],"high-density":[58],"3D":[59,83],"point":[60],"clouds":[61],"acquired":[62],"by":[63,113,160],"laser":[64],"scanning.":[65],"The":[66,186],"workflow":[67],"includes":[68],"point-cloud":[69],"preprocessing,":[70],"patch-based":[71],"segmentation,":[72],"voxelization,":[73],"representation":[76],"learning":[77],"defect-free":[79],"morphology.":[81],"Two":[82],"deep":[84],"autoencoder":[85,90,95],"models,":[86],"i.e.,":[87],"a":[88,93],"convolutional":[89],"(CAE)":[91],"variational":[94],"(VAE),":[96],"trained":[98],"exclusively":[99],"normal":[101],"patches":[102],"detect":[104],"anomalies":[105],"through":[106],"voxel-wise":[107],"reconstruction":[108],"errors.":[109],"Defects":[110],"localized":[112],"mapping":[114],"reconstruction-error":[115],"heatmaps":[116],"back":[117],"onto":[118],"original":[120],"surface,":[121],"enabling":[122],"quantitative":[123],"visualization":[124],"defect":[126,150],"severity.":[127],"Experimental":[128],"results":[129],"thin-wall":[132],"samples":[133],"show":[134],"optimized":[137],"CAE":[138],"achieves":[139],"86.09%":[140],"precision,":[141],"while":[142],"VAE":[144],"reaches":[145],"86.43%":[146],"precision":[147],"with":[148,196],"improved":[149],"(mIoU":[152],"up":[153],"to":[154,190],"0.7234).":[155],"Activation-map":[156],"analysis":[157],"provides":[158],"interpretability":[159],"highlighting":[161],"geometric":[162],"regions":[163],"drive":[165],"anomaly":[166],"responses.":[167],"A":[168],"hyperparameter":[169],"study":[170],"demonstrates":[171],"lower":[173],"voxel":[174],"resolutions":[175],"smaller":[177],"patch":[178],"sizes":[179],"improve":[180],"robustness":[181],"reduce":[183],"false":[184],"positives.":[185],"proposed":[187],"generalizes":[189],"more":[191],"complex":[192],"multi-bead,":[193],"multi-layer":[194],"structures":[195],"minimal":[197],"retraining,":[198],"supporting":[199],"practical":[200],"deployment":[201],"intelligent":[203],"decision-making":[206],"in":[207],"additive":[208],"manufacturing":[209],"assurance.":[211]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-03-13T14:20:09.374765","created_date":"2026-03-08T00:00:00"}
