{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415827528","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196","title":"Benchmarking of closed vision-language models for Ki-67 index prediction in breast cancer histopathology images","display_name":"Benchmarking of closed vision-language models for Ki-67 index prediction in breast cancer histopathology images","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-11-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415827528","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S13144211","display_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","issn_l":"0957-4174","issn":["0957-4174","1873-6793"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5080165733","display_name":"Harold Brayan Arteaga-Arteaga","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2341-5079"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I152456871","display_name":"University of Caldas","ror":"https://ror.org/049n68p64","country_code":"CO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I152456871"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210093237","display_name":"Universidad Autonoma de Manizales","ror":"https://ror.org/00jfare13","country_code":"CO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210093237"]}],"countries":["CO"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Harold Brayan Arteaga-Arteaga","raw_affiliation_strings":["CDI Interactive, Ariadna Communications Group, Manizales, Caldas, 170001, Colombia","Departamento de Electr\u00f3nica y Automatizaci\u00f3n, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Manizales, Manizales, Caldas, 170001, Colombia","Departamento de Sistemas e Inform\u00e1tica, Universidad de Caldas, Manizales, Caldas, 170002, Colombia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"CDI Interactive, Ariadna Communications Group, Manizales, Caldas, 170001, Colombia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152456871"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departamento de Electr\u00f3nica y Automatizaci\u00f3n, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Manizales, Manizales, Caldas, 170001, Colombia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210093237"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departamento de Sistemas e Inform\u00e1tica, Universidad de Caldas, Manizales, Caldas, 170002, Colombia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152456871"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5120237166","display_name":"Juan Andr\u00e9s Giraldo-Arias","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-1796-1425"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I152456871","display_name":"University of Caldas","ror":"https://ror.org/049n68p64","country_code":"CO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I152456871"]}],"countries":["CO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Juan Andr\u00e9s Giraldo-Arias","raw_affiliation_strings":["Departamento de Sistemas e Inform\u00e1tica, Universidad de Caldas, Manizales, Caldas, 170002, Colombia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departamento de Sistemas e Inform\u00e1tica, Universidad de Caldas, Manizales, Caldas, 170002, Colombia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152456871"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5023369361","display_name":"Mario Alejandro Bravo-Ort\u00edz","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3560-1300"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210093237","display_name":"Universidad Autonoma de Manizales","ror":"https://ror.org/00jfare13","country_code":"CO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210093237"]}],"countries":["CO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mario Alejandro Bravo-Ort\u00edz","raw_affiliation_strings":["Departamento de Electr\u00f3nica y Automatizaci\u00f3n, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Manizales, Manizales, Caldas, 170001, Colombia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departamento de Electr\u00f3nica y Automatizaci\u00f3n, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Manizales, Manizales, Caldas, 170001, Colombia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210093237"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5003126999","display_name":"Cristina Ju\u00e1rez Land\u00edn","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0988-3060"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I81992734","display_name":"Universidad del Valle de M\u00e9xico","ror":"https://ror.org/05h9c3z20","country_code":"MX","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I81992734"]}],"countries":["MX"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Cristina Ju\u00e1rez Land\u00edn","raw_affiliation_strings":["Centro Universitario UAEM Valle de Chalco, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma del Estado de M\u00e9xico, Valle de Chalco, 56615, M\u00e9xico"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Centro Universitario UAEM Valle de Chalco, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma del Estado de M\u00e9xico, Valle de Chalco, 56615, M\u00e9xico","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I81992734"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102941062","display_name":"Pablo Guillen-Rondon","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3944-2669"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16277215","display_name":"University of Houston - Downtown","ror":"https://ror.org/05mj6fy81","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16277215"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210107404","display_name":"Clinical Research Solutions","ror":"https://ror.org/01m2t4z13","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210107404"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pablo Guillen-Rondon","raw_affiliation_strings":["Biomedical and Energy Solutions LLC, Houston, Texas, 77001, United States of America","Department of Computer Science, University of Houston-Downtown, Houston, Texas, 77002, United States of America"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Biomedical and Energy Solutions LLC, Houston, Texas, 77001, United States of America","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210107404"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, University of Houston-Downtown, Houston, Texas, 77002, United States of America","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16277215"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062165084","display_name":"Reinel Tabares-Soto","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4978-5211"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I152456871","display_name":"University of Caldas","ror":"https://ror.org/049n68p64","country_code":"CO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I152456871"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I21067949","display_name":"Adolfo Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez University","ror":"https://ror.org/0326knt82","country_code":"CL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I21067949"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210093237","display_name":"Universidad Autonoma de Manizales","ror":"https://ror.org/00jfare13","country_code":"CO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210093237"]}],"countries":["CL","CO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Reinel Tabares-Soto","raw_affiliation_strings":["Departamento de Electr\u00f3nica y Automatizaci\u00f3n, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Manizales, Manizales, Caldas, 170001, Colombia","Departamento de Sistemas e Inform\u00e1tica, Universidad de Caldas, Manizales, Caldas, 170002, Colombia","GobLab and Faculty of Engineering and Sciences, Universidad Adolfo Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, Santiago de Chile, 7941169, Chile"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departamento de Electr\u00f3nica y Automatizaci\u00f3n, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Manizales, Manizales, Caldas, 170001, Colombia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210093237"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Departamento de Sistemas e Inform\u00e1tica, Universidad de Caldas, Manizales, Caldas, 170002, Colombia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152456871"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"GobLab and Faculty of Engineering and Sciences, Universidad Adolfo Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, Santiago de Chile, 7941169, Chile","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I21067949"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":4,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5080165733"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I152456871","https://openalex.org/I4210093237"],"apc_list":{"value":3220,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3220},"apc_paid":{"value":3220,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3220},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.17856864,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"299","issue":null,"first_page":"130196","last_page":"130196"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10862","display_name":"AI in cancer detection","score":0.9574999809265137,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10862","display_name":"AI in cancer detection","score":0.9574999809265137,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11361","display_name":"Digital Radiography and Breast Imaging","score":0.017799999564886093,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2740","display_name":"Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11134","display_name":"Breast Lesions and Carcinomas","score":0.004800000227987766,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2734","display_name":"Pathology and Forensic Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/benchmarking","display_name":"Benchmarking","score":0.9519000053405762},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/concordance","display_name":"Concordance","score":0.6833000183105469},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/index","display_name":"Index (typography)","score":0.5568000078201294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/breast-cancer","display_name":"Breast cancer","score":0.4968000054359436},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inference","display_name":"Inference","score":0.49239999055862427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/baseline","display_name":"Baseline (sea)","score":0.38659998774528503}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86251818","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816754","display_name":"Benchmarking","level":2,"score":0.9519000053405762},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C160798450","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4230870","display_name":"Concordance","level":2,"score":0.6833000183105469},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6316999793052673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777382242","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6017816","display_name":"Index (typography)","level":2,"score":0.5568000078201294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C530470458","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q128581","display_name":"Breast cancer","level":3,"score":0.4968000054359436},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776214188","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408386","display_name":"Inference","level":2,"score":0.49239999055862427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.48429998755455017},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12725497","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q810247","display_name":"Baseline (sea)","level":2,"score":0.38659998774528503},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.3758000135421753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185798385","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1161707","display_name":"Benchmark (surveying)","level":2,"score":0.37369999289512634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.36340001225471497},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.358599990606308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19527891","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1120908","display_name":"Medical physics","level":1,"score":0.349700003862381},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98045186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205663","display_name":"Process (computing)","level":2,"score":0.34369999170303345},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146849305","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q370766","display_name":"Ground truth","level":2,"score":0.3151000142097473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C544855455","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1070952","display_name":"Histopathology","level":2,"score":0.28859999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.2599000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778559731","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23808793","display_name":"Radiomics","level":2,"score":0.25859999656677246}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S13144211","display_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","issn_l":"0957-4174","issn":["0957-4174","1873-6793"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2025.130196","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S13144211","display_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","issn_l":"0957-4174","issn":["0957-4174","1873-6793"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Expert Systems with Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":28,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2997104140","https://openalex.org/W3045198623","https://openalex.org/W3046918297","https://openalex.org/W3115970425","https://openalex.org/W3124809916","https://openalex.org/W3155052406","https://openalex.org/W3155775787","https://openalex.org/W3174482576","https://openalex.org/W3198231732","https://openalex.org/W3217302895","https://openalex.org/W4213418594","https://openalex.org/W4220972429","https://openalex.org/W4223430324","https://openalex.org/W4311585067","https://openalex.org/W4376641301","https://openalex.org/W4383112368","https://openalex.org/W4385716315","https://openalex.org/W4388022200","https://openalex.org/W4389417907","https://openalex.org/W4390637142","https://openalex.org/W4390683763","https://openalex.org/W4390837850","https://openalex.org/W4391212953","https://openalex.org/W4392387211","https://openalex.org/W4404143589","https://openalex.org/W4404178703","https://openalex.org/W4404584849","https://openalex.org/W4406681495"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Quantifying":[0],"the":[1,8,23,85,151],"Ki-67":[2,110,120,127,181,219],"proliferation":[3],"index":[4,176],"is":[5],"crucial":[6],"for":[7,105,175,195,217],"prognosis":[9],"of":[10,26,102,147],"breast":[11,41],"cancer.":[12],"However,":[13],"manual":[14],"scoring":[15],"remains":[16],"subjective":[17],"and":[18,37,98,145,178,188],"labor-intensive.":[19],"This":[20,198],"study":[21],"presents":[22],"first":[24],"benchmarking":[25,204],"proprietary":[27],"vision\u2013language":[28,207],"models":[29,46,208],"(VLMs),":[30],"including":[31],"those":[32],"from":[33,157],"OpenAI,":[34],"Google,":[35],"xAI,":[36],"Anthropic,":[38],"applied":[39],"to":[40,159],"cancer":[42],"histopathology.":[43],"Eight":[44],"commercial":[45],"were":[47],"evaluated":[48],"in":[49],"a":[50,55,100,192,201,214],"strict":[51],"zero-shot":[52,203],"setting,":[53],"using":[54,206],"unified,":[56],"guideline-based":[57],"prompt":[58],"across":[59,150],"two":[60],"available,":[61],"annotated":[62],"datasets":[63],"(BCData,":[64],"n":[65,70],"=":[66,71,94,141],"402":[67],";":[68],"SHIDC-B-Ki-67,":[69,134],"700":[72],").":[73],"Results":[74],"show":[75],"substantial":[76],"differences":[77],"between":[78],"providers:":[79],"on":[80,133],"BCData,":[81],"OpenAI\u2019s":[82],"GPT-4.5":[83],"achieved":[84],"best":[86],"concordance":[87],"with":[88,138],"expert":[89],"annotations":[90],"(":[91],"R":[92,139],"2":[93,140],"0.8570":[95],",":[96,143],"RMSE=7.9708)":[97],"reached":[99],"macro-F1":[101,146],"74.56":[103],"%":[104,113,118,123,130,149],"three-class":[106],"cut-off":[107],"classification":[108],"(Low:":[109],"<":[111,121],"16":[112,117],"(less":[114],"proliferative),":[115],"Medium:":[116],"\u2264":[119],"30":[122,129],"(intermediate":[124],"proliferation),":[125],"High:":[126],"\u2265":[128],"(highly":[131],"proliferative));":[132],"GPT-4.1":[135],"mini":[136],"led":[137],"0.5465":[142],"RMSE=16.8202,":[144],"66.86":[148],"same":[152],"ranges.":[153],"Inference":[154],"times":[155],"ranged":[156],"1.67":[158],"6.84":[160],"s":[161],"per":[162],"image.":[163],"Our":[164],"findings":[165],"highlight":[166],"that":[167],"closed":[168],"VLMs":[169],"can":[170],"deliver":[171],"an":[172],"accurate":[173],"process":[174],"calculation":[177],"rapidly":[179],"deployable":[180],"quantification,":[182],"while":[183],"revealing":[184],"significant":[185],"vendor-specific":[186],"variability":[187],"potential":[189],"use":[190],"as":[191,213],"complementary":[193],"tool":[194],"medical":[196],"professionals.":[197],"work":[199],"establishes":[200],"new":[202],"framework,":[205],"guided":[209],"by":[210],"human":[211],"instructions,":[212],"reference":[215],"baseline":[216],"future":[218],"quantification":[220],"studies.":[221]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-07T16:01:11.037858","created_date":"2025-11-03T00:00:00"}