{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4416701863","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507","title":"Style, sentiment, and quality of undergraduate writing in the AI era: A cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of 4,820 authentic empirical reports","display_name":"Style, sentiment, and quality of undergraduate writing in the AI era: A cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of 4,820 authentic empirical reports","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-11-26","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4416701863","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210183364","display_name":"Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2666-920X","issn":["2666-920X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046634236","display_name":"Matthew HC Mak","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7237-4931"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Matthew H.C. Mak","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7237-4931","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5072432368","display_name":"Lukasz Walasek","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7360-0037"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Lukasz Walasek","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5046634236"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"],"apc_list":{"value":1800,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1800},"apc_paid":{"value":1800,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1800},"fwci":0.3666,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.708124,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":94,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":null,"first_page":"100507","last_page":"100507"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.8619999885559082,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.8619999885559082,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12488","display_name":"Mental Health via Writing","score":0.024700000882148743,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11948","display_name":"Machine Learning in Materials Science","score":0.007600000128149986,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2505","display_name":"Materials Chemistry"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/25","display_name":"Materials Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/style","display_name":"Style (visual arts)","score":0.6751999855041504},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quality","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","score":0.6194000244140625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/writing-style","display_name":"Writing style","score":0.5321000218391418},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/raising","display_name":"Raising (metalworking)","score":0.46959999203681946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-research","display_name":"Empirical research","score":0.4544999897480011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-evidence","display_name":"Empirical evidence","score":0.4049000144004822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/exploratory-research","display_name":"Exploratory research","score":0.3917999863624573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lexical-diversity","display_name":"Lexical diversity","score":0.37059998512268066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/exploratory-analysis","display_name":"Exploratory analysis","score":0.3544999957084656}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776445246","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1792644","display_name":"Style (visual arts)","level":2,"score":0.6751999855041504},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.6717000007629395},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779530757","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1207505","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.6194000244140625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13622073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2243831","display_name":"Writing style","level":2,"score":0.5321000218391418},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780589192","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7285140","display_name":"Raising (metalworking)","level":2,"score":0.46959999203681946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.4544999897480011},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.41110000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166052673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83021","display_name":"Empirical evidence","level":2,"score":0.4049000144004822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C85973986","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1091731","display_name":"Exploratory research","level":2,"score":0.3917999863624573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.3912000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781202465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18346297","display_name":"Lexical diversity","level":3,"score":0.37059998512268066},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75630572","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q538904","display_name":"Applied psychology","level":1,"score":0.3594000041484833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3018260909","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1322871","display_name":"Exploratory analysis","level":2,"score":0.3544999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.3499999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777402240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6783436","display_name":"Masking (illustration)","level":2,"score":0.33980000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.3361000120639801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.32499998807907104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165957694","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5421350","display_name":"Exploratory factor analysis","level":3,"score":0.3147999942302704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154775046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188","display_name":"German","level":2,"score":0.289000004529953},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21036866","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181767","display_name":"Stress (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.274399995803833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39890363","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36108","display_name":"Generative grammar","level":2,"score":0.2700999975204468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2986587452","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q938438","display_name":"Statistical analysis","level":2,"score":0.2660999894142151},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C57098296","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12021746","display_name":"Interrogative","level":2,"score":0.26460000872612},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126706616","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2944660","display_name":"Lexical item","level":2,"score":0.2623000144958496},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2987219923","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q777864","display_name":"Linguistic analysis","level":2,"score":0.2621999979019165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781285556","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1820370","display_name":"Learning styles","level":2,"score":0.2556999921798706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19417346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7922","display_name":"Pedagogy","level":1,"score":0.2547999918460846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993259228","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3320364","display_name":"Statistical evidence","level":3,"score":0.25049999356269836}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210183364","display_name":"Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2666-920X","issn":["2666-920X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:ecd58a6e968f4b129add10f4d45736eb","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/ecd58a6e968f4b129add10f4d45736eb","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, Vol 9, Iss , Pp 100507- (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100507","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210183364","display_name":"Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2666-920X","issn":["2666-920X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4917604788","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"TDA24\\\\240012","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320004","funder_display_name":"British Academy"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320004","display_name":"British Academy","ror":"https://ror.org/0302b4677"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":29,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W773929776","https://openalex.org/W1507711477","https://openalex.org/W1986809092","https://openalex.org/W2087388117","https://openalex.org/W2915411073","https://openalex.org/W4220747294","https://openalex.org/W4310214738","https://openalex.org/W4362551436","https://openalex.org/W4367051110","https://openalex.org/W4383312437","https://openalex.org/W4388000629","https://openalex.org/W4388034851","https://openalex.org/W4388108480","https://openalex.org/W4396673785","https://openalex.org/W4399572298","https://openalex.org/W4400037475","https://openalex.org/W4400578758","https://openalex.org/W4400915448","https://openalex.org/W4401518309","https://openalex.org/W4402893311","https://openalex.org/W4403325266","https://openalex.org/W4403579585","https://openalex.org/W4403637141","https://openalex.org/W4404907007","https://openalex.org/W4406983611","https://openalex.org/W4407775405","https://openalex.org/W4408995547","https://openalex.org/W4410632103","https://openalex.org/W4411948293"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"As":[0],"generative":[1],"artificial":[2],"intelligence":[3],"(GenAI)":[4],"becomes":[5],"widespread":[6],"in":[7,36,66,164,213,245,260,264,283],"education,":[8],"its":[9,119],"influence":[10,40],"on":[11,122],"students\u2019":[12,47,123],"academic":[13],"practice":[14],"raises":[15],"concern.":[16],"We":[17,230,241],"conducted":[18],"pre-registered":[19],"analyses":[20],"of":[21,46,53,104,112,189,207,226,256],"4,820":[22],"empirical":[23,234],"reports":[24,162,235],"authored":[25],"by":[26,80,136],"2,000":[27],"psychology":[28,233],"undergraduates":[29],"(2016-2025)":[30],"to":[31,70,152,238,294],"examine":[32],"how":[33],"ChatGPT\u2019s":[34,50,250,268],"launch":[35],"November":[37],"2022":[38],"may":[39],"the":[41,109,113,130,174,187,193],"style,":[42],"sentiment,":[43,167],"and":[44,126,138,156,166,192,222,247],"quality":[45,134],"writing.":[48],"Following":[49],"release,":[51],"prevalence":[52],"ChatGPT-associated":[54],"lexical":[55,81],"markers":[56,254],"(e.g.,":[57],"delve,":[58],"intricate":[59],")":[60],"surged":[61],"until":[62],"2024,":[63],"then":[64],"declined":[65,263],"2025,":[67],"possibly":[68],"due":[69],"some":[71],"students":[72,179,209,270],"actively":[73],"masking":[74],"GenAI":[75,212],"traces.":[76],"Writing":[77],"style":[78,165,246],"(indexed":[79,135],"diversity/density/sophistication,":[82],"nominalisation,":[83],"readability)":[84],"became":[85,100],"increasingly":[86,292],"formal":[87],"post-ChatGPT,":[88],"diverging":[89],"from":[90,236],"predicted/historical":[91],"trends.":[92],"Consistent":[93],"with":[94],"GenAI\u2019s":[95],"positivity":[96],"bias,":[97],"sentiment":[98,248],"also":[99],"more":[101,163,196,272],"positive,":[102],"independent":[103],"a":[105,204],"report\u2019s":[106],"topic":[107],"or":[108,285],"statistical":[110],"significance":[111],"reported":[114],"results,":[115],"raising":[116],"questions":[117],"about":[118],"potential":[120],"impact":[121],"voice,":[124],"creativity,":[125],"critical":[127],"thinking.":[128],"Despite":[129],"stylistic":[131,221],"changes,":[132],"writing":[133],"grades":[137,284],"feedback)":[139],"showed":[140],"no":[141,178],"discernible":[142],"shifts.":[143,176],"In":[144],"an":[145],"exploratory":[146],"analysis,":[147],"we":[148],"asked":[149],"GPT":[150,171],"models":[151,172],"rewrite":[153],"pre-ChatGPT":[154],"reports,":[155],"these":[157],"GPT-rewritten":[158],"texts":[159,296],"resembled":[160],"post-ChatGPT":[161],"providing":[168],"evidence":[169],"for":[170,195],"driving":[173],"observed":[175],"Finally,":[177],"disclosed":[180],"AI":[181],"use":[182],"despite":[183],"clear":[184,243],"guidelines,":[185],"highlighting":[186],"ineffectiveness":[188],"voluntary":[190],"disclosure":[191],"need":[194],"enforceable":[197],"policy.":[198],"Overall,":[199],"our":[200],"findings":[201],"indicate":[202],"that":[203,219],"growing":[205],"proportion":[206],"undergraduate":[208],"are":[210,290],"incorporating":[211],"their":[214],"written":[215],"assignments,":[216],"producing":[217],"work":[218],"exhibits":[220],"tonal":[223],"features":[224],"characteristic":[225],"ChatGPT-generated":[227],"text.":[228],"\u2022":[229,240,252,266,276,287],"analysed":[231],"4820":[232],"2016":[237],"2025":[239,265],"found":[242],"shifts":[244],"following":[249],"release":[251],"Lexical":[253],"typical":[255],"GPT-generated":[257,295],"text":[258],"jumped":[259],"2024":[261],"but":[262],"After":[267],"launch,":[269],"used":[271],"formal,":[273],"positive":[274],"language":[275],"These":[277],"changes":[278],"occurred":[279],"without":[280],"corresponding":[281],"improvements":[282],"feedback":[286],"Student":[288],"submissions":[289],"becoming":[291],"similar":[293]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-01-20T17:24:06.736184","created_date":"2025-11-27T00:00:00"}