{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414120431","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475","title":"How do LLMs perform in the context of MCQs across different levels of thinking skills in a business education course at higher education? A comparison of ChatGPT, Gemini, and Copilot","display_name":"How do LLMs perform in the context of MCQs across different levels of thinking skills in a business education course at higher education? A comparison of ChatGPT, Gemini, and Copilot","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414120431","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210183364","display_name":"Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2666-920X","issn":["2666-920X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119590090","display_name":"Laurens Goorts","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802330208","display_name":"Statistics Belgium","ror":"https://ror.org/0246a9012","country_code":"BE","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208","https://openalex.org/I4210095879"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Laurens Goorts","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119590091","display_name":"Ryan Hollevoet","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0592-0662"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802330208","display_name":"Statistics Belgium","ror":"https://ror.org/0246a9012","country_code":"BE","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208","https://openalex.org/I4210095879"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ryan Hollevoet","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0592-0662","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119590092","display_name":"Vanessa Xia","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802330208","display_name":"Statistics Belgium","ror":"https://ror.org/0246a9012","country_code":"BE","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208","https://openalex.org/I4210095879"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vanessa Xia","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005399916","display_name":"Felix Cammaerts","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0037-3865"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802330208","display_name":"Statistics Belgium","ror":"https://ror.org/0246a9012","country_code":"BE","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208","https://openalex.org/I4210095879"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Felix Cammaerts","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5002827336","display_name":"Almer G\u00fcng\u00f6r","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3626-2101"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802330208","display_name":"Statistics Belgium","ror":"https://ror.org/0246a9012","country_code":"BE","type":"government","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208","https://openalex.org/I4210095879"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Almer G\u00fcng\u00f6r","raw_affiliation_strings":["Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3626-2101","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Information Systems Engineering Research Group (LIRIS), Faculty of Economics and Business, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, 3000 Leuven, Belgium","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5002827336"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2802330208"],"apc_list":{"value":1800,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1800},"apc_paid":{"value":1800,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1800},"fwci":0.7332,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.77049381,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":null,"first_page":"100475","last_page":"100475"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.9987000226974487,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.9987000226974487,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11492","display_name":"Academic integrity and plagiarism","score":0.9366000294685364,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12574","display_name":"Clinical Reasoning and Diagnostic Skills","score":0.9168999791145325,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2714","display_name":"Family Practice"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.5968000292778015},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/leverage","display_name":"Leverage (statistics)","score":0.5388000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/business-education","display_name":"Business education","score":0.4763000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognition","display_name":"Cognition","score":0.4343999922275543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mastery-learning","display_name":"Mastery learning","score":0.3531000018119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/analytical-skill","display_name":"Analytical skill","score":0.34700000286102295}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.5968000292778015},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153083717","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6535263","display_name":"Leverage (statistics)","level":2,"score":0.5388000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.5024999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C523056402","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4086500","display_name":"Business education","level":3,"score":0.4763000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.44749999046325684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.4343999922275543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776933062","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q861413","display_name":"Mastery learning","level":2,"score":0.3531000018119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165696491","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4751161","display_name":"Analytical skill","level":2,"score":0.34700000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C533356498","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q843894","display_name":"Critical thinking","level":2,"score":0.3407999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120912362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q136822","display_name":"Higher education","level":2,"score":0.3264999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C150681269","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2380771","display_name":"Cognitive style","level":3,"score":0.3034000098705292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19417346","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7922","display_name":"Pedagogy","level":1,"score":0.2921000123023987},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56739046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192060","display_name":"Knowledge management","level":1,"score":0.2775999903678894},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14564219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383646","display_name":"Social cognitive theory","level":2,"score":0.2768999934196472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.2768000066280365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76188268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1783165","display_name":"Context effect","level":3,"score":0.26440000534057617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778308277","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25304922","display_name":"21st century skills","level":2,"score":0.25760000944137573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C509550671","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126945","display_name":"Medical education","level":1,"score":0.2540999948978424}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210183364","display_name":"Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2666-920X","issn":["2666-920X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:lirias2repo.kuleuven.be:20.500.12942/774786","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/20.500.12942/774786","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407055369","display_name":"Lirias","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, vol. 9 (December 2025), Art.No. 100475","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100475","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210183364","display_name":"Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence","issn_l":"2666-920X","issn":["2666-920X"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4134965647","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"101055874","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":33,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1951724000","https://openalex.org/W2031213082","https://openalex.org/W2045529572","https://openalex.org/W2078113882","https://openalex.org/W2104671973","https://openalex.org/W2113008765","https://openalex.org/W2155988679","https://openalex.org/W2162821268","https://openalex.org/W2461505613","https://openalex.org/W2476280836","https://openalex.org/W4280586943","https://openalex.org/W4292779060","https://openalex.org/W4323319490","https://openalex.org/W4323652488","https://openalex.org/W4362513652","https://openalex.org/W4362723020","https://openalex.org/W4375949262","https://openalex.org/W4376640725","https://openalex.org/W4379879923","https://openalex.org/W4381895526","https://openalex.org/W4383113509","https://openalex.org/W4384337881","https://openalex.org/W4385574286","https://openalex.org/W4386322180","https://openalex.org/W4388490623","https://openalex.org/W4388624829","https://openalex.org/W4389733229","https://openalex.org/W4391145008","https://openalex.org/W4391689754","https://openalex.org/W4398229687","https://openalex.org/W4400142690","https://openalex.org/W4400526729","https://openalex.org/W4401042689"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4318717247","https://openalex.org/W2267656092","https://openalex.org/W2317874921","https://openalex.org/W2736755255","https://openalex.org/W4362648715","https://openalex.org/W2009385780","https://openalex.org/W3082623308","https://openalex.org/W3120503679","https://openalex.org/W2359390960","https://openalex.org/W2238501609"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0],"exploratory":[1],"study":[2],"investigates":[3],"the":[4,32,51,103,215,236],"performance":[5,70,156,175,190],"of":[6,239],"three":[7,143],"widely-used":[8],"and":[9,20,42,89,95,118,179,185,245],"freely":[10],"available":[11],"large":[12],"language":[13],"models":[14],"(LLMs)\u2014":[15],"ChatGPT":[16],"(GPT-3.5":[17],"Turbo),":[18],"Gemini,":[19],"Copilot\u2014in":[21],"answering":[22],"multiple-choice":[23],"questions":[24,149],"(MCQs)":[25],"categorized":[26],"by":[27,183],"cognitive":[28,58,186],"complexity":[29],"based":[30],"on":[31,53,102,147,176,191],"revised":[33],"Bloom's":[34,133],"Taxonomy.":[35],"Although":[36],"MCQs":[37,101],"offer":[38],"a":[39,47,62,218],"structured,":[40],"efficient,":[41],"scalable":[43],"method":[44],"for":[45,81,92,193,197,205,217,241],"evaluation,":[46],"gap":[48],"exists":[49],"in":[50,61,71,155,209,235],"literature":[52],"how":[54],"LLMs":[55,80,144,223,240],"handle":[56],"varying":[57],"levels,":[59],"particularly":[60,196],"business":[63,210],"course":[64],"at":[65],"higher":[66,206],"education.":[67,211],"Understanding":[68],"LLM":[69,174],"this":[72,111],"context":[73],"is":[74],"crucial,":[75],"as":[76,130,132,224],"students":[77,234],"increasingly":[78],"use":[79,238],"searching":[82],"answers":[83],"but":[84],"also":[85],"to":[86,232],"receive":[87],"tailored":[88],"scaffolded":[90],"responses":[91],"an":[93],"interactive":[94],"personalized":[96],"learning":[97,225],"experience.":[98],"Using":[99],"100":[100],"Business":[104],"Intelligence":[105],"&":[106],"Data":[107],"Analytics":[108],"chapter":[109],"from":[110,136],"course\u2014classified":[112],"into":[113],"Lower-Order":[114],"Thinking":[115,120],"Skills":[116,121],"(LOTS)":[117],"Higher-Order":[119],"(HOTS)\u2014LLMs'":[122],"accuracy":[123],"scores":[124],"were":[125,157,163],"compared":[126],"across":[127,159],"these":[128,161,230],"categories":[129],"well":[131],"Subcategories.":[134],"Findings":[135],"Generalized":[137],"Linear":[138],"Mixed":[139],"Models":[140],"reveal":[141],"that":[142],"perform":[145],"better":[146],"LOTS":[148],"than":[150],"HOTS.":[151],"While":[152],"descriptive":[153],"trends":[154],"observed":[158],"models,":[160],"differences":[162],"not":[164],"statistically":[165],"significant.":[166],"However,":[167],"prompt":[168],"engineering,":[169],"specifically":[170],"FS-CD,":[171],"can":[172,228],"enhance":[173],"complex":[177,243],"tasks,":[178],"its":[180],"effectiveness":[181],"varies":[182],"model":[184],"level,":[187],"significantly":[188],"improving":[189],"HOTS":[192],"all":[194],"LLMs,":[195],"Apply-level":[198],"tasks.":[199],"These":[200,212],"insights":[201,231],"have":[202],"potential":[203],"implications":[204],"education,":[207],"especially":[208],"findings":[213],"underscore":[214],"necessity":[216],"critical":[219],"approach":[220],"when":[221],"using":[222],"tools.":[226],"Educators":[227],"leverage":[229],"guide":[233],"effective":[237],"mastering":[242],"concepts":[244],"skills.":[246]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-02-22T13:39:03.778224","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}