{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7147720620","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132","title":"Explainable pain level classification using a natural visibility graph-driven adaptive dilated recurrent unit with speech signals","display_name":"Explainable pain level classification using a natural visibility graph-driven adaptive dilated recurrent unit with speech signals","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-04-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7147720620","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8427965","display_name":"Biomedical Signal Processing and Control","issn_l":"1746-8094","issn":["1746-8094","1746-8108"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Biomedical Signal Processing and Control","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5132611421","display_name":"Aditya P. Kamath","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185523456","display_name":"University of Southern Queensland","ror":"https://ror.org/04sjbnx57","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Aditya P. Kamath","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield Central, QLD 4300, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1424-8248","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield Central, QLD 4300, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5132712524","display_name":"Xiaohui Tao","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185523456","display_name":"University of Southern Queensland","ror":"https://ror.org/04sjbnx57","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaohui Tao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield Central, QLD 4300, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0020-077X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield Central, QLD 4300, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5051414197","display_name":"Taotao Cai","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3624-6120"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185523456","display_name":"University of Southern Queensland","ror":"https://ror.org/04sjbnx57","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Taotao Cai","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Mathematics, Physics, and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Mathematics, Physics, and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5132723019","display_name":"Prabal Datta Barua","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185523456","display_name":"University of Southern Queensland","ror":"https://ror.org/04sjbnx57","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Prabal Datta Barua","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield Central, QLD 4300, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield Central, QLD 4300, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5132548715","display_name":"Sreeni Chadalavada","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I185523456","display_name":"University of Southern Queensland","ror":"https://ror.org/04sjbnx57","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sreeni Chadalavada","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Engineering, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Engineering, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5132554516","display_name":"Abdulkadir Sengur","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I143396566","display_name":"F\u0131rat University","ror":"https://ror.org/05teb7b63","country_code":"TR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I143396566"]}],"countries":["TR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Abdulkadir Sengur","raw_affiliation_strings":["Electrical-Electronics Engineering Department, Technology Faculty, Firat University, Elazig, Turkey"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1614-2639","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Electrical-Electronics Engineering Department, Technology Faculty, Firat University, Elazig, Turkey","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I143396566"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5132611421"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I185523456"],"apc_list":{"value":2420,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2420},"apc_paid":{"value":2420,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2420},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.74742727,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"120","issue":null,"first_page":"110132","last_page":"110132"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10667","display_name":"Emotion and Mood Recognition","score":0.27549999952316284,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10667","display_name":"Emotion and Mood Recognition","score":0.27549999952316284,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11199","display_name":"Pain Management and Opioid Use","score":0.21369999647140503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2703","display_name":"Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10196","display_name":"Pain Mechanisms and Treatments","score":0.07900000363588333,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2737","display_name":"Physiology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/visibility","display_name":"Visibility","score":0.7254999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spectrogram","display_name":"Spectrogram","score":0.6826000213623047},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sort","display_name":"sort","score":0.47780001163482666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/graph","display_name":"Graph","score":0.4300999939441681},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.41119998693466187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.3797999918460846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/waveform","display_name":"Waveform","score":0.36739999055862427}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7559999823570251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123403432","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q654068","display_name":"Visibility","level":2,"score":0.7254999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45273575","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q578970","display_name":"Spectrogram","level":2,"score":0.6826000213623047},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5665000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C88548561","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q347599","display_name":"sort","level":2,"score":0.47780001163482666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.44339999556541443},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C132525143","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141488","display_name":"Graph","level":2,"score":0.4300999939441681},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.41119998693466187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.3797999918460846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C197424946","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1165717","display_name":"Waveform","level":3,"score":0.36739999055862427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C182365436","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50701","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.35359999537467957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.34439998865127563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776608160","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4785462","display_name":"Natural (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.31040000915527344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.28859999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778282284","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7124832","display_name":"Pain assessment","level":3,"score":0.28220000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51632099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3985153","display_name":"Training set","level":2,"score":0.2773999869823456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195324797","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33742","display_name":"Natural language","level":2,"score":0.2669000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136389625","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334384","display_name":"Supervised learning","level":3,"score":0.26330000162124634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.26260000467300415},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779843651","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7390335","display_name":"SIGNAL (programming language)","level":2,"score":0.25110000371932983}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8427965","display_name":"Biomedical Signal Processing and Control","issn_l":"1746-8094","issn":["1746-8094","1746-8108"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Biomedical Signal Processing and Control","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2026.110132","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S8427965","display_name":"Biomedical Signal Processing and Control","issn_l":"1746-8094","issn":["1746-8094","1746-8108"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Biomedical Signal Processing and Control","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.517347514629364}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":19,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1493918286","https://openalex.org/W1928602947","https://openalex.org/W1976639084","https://openalex.org/W2001951871","https://openalex.org/W2113217511","https://openalex.org/W2162638563","https://openalex.org/W2162800060","https://openalex.org/W2197473678","https://openalex.org/W2337210803","https://openalex.org/W3043476716","https://openalex.org/W3198109766","https://openalex.org/W4307189193","https://openalex.org/W4361270915","https://openalex.org/W4361756166","https://openalex.org/W4389917623","https://openalex.org/W4399696592","https://openalex.org/W4405154499","https://openalex.org/W4408133755","https://openalex.org/W4414281832"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Pain":[0],"detection":[1],"is":[2],"essential":[3],"in":[4,118],"healthcare":[5],"because":[6],"it":[7,19,212],"provides":[8],"clinicians":[9],"with":[10,93],"information":[11],"for":[12,220],"diagnosis,":[13],"treatment,":[14],"and":[15,25,41,62,73,112,135,164,173,179,204,217,239],"patient":[16],"monitoring.":[17],"However,":[18],"has":[20],"always":[21],"depended":[22],"on":[23,139,153],"biased":[24],"variable":[26],"self-reporting.":[27],"Automatic":[28],"pain":[29,94,163,166,184,222],"assessment":[30],"technologies":[31],"aim":[32],"to":[33,69,120,143,199,241],"address":[34],"these":[35],"problems":[36],"by":[37,132],"developing":[38],"objective,":[39],"non-invasive,":[40],"scalable":[42],"methods.":[43],"In":[44],"this":[45],"paper,":[46],"we":[47,127],"propose":[48],"a":[49,82,98,205],"speech-based":[50],"pain-level":[51,156],"classification":[52],"system":[53],"that":[54,148,211,229],"employs":[55],"an":[56,63,129,215],"explainable":[57],"Natural":[58],"Visibility":[59],"Graph":[60],"(NVG)":[61],"Adaptive":[64],"Dilated":[65],"Recurrent":[66],"Unit":[67],"(ADRU)":[68],"learn":[70],"temporal":[71],"dependencies":[72],"structural":[74],"relationships":[75],"from":[76,97],"speech":[77,90,234],"signals.":[78],"The":[79,102,158,190,225],"experiment":[80],"used":[81,233],"publicly":[83],"available":[84],"TAME-Pain":[85],"dataset":[86],"comprising":[87],"over":[88],"7,000":[89],"samples":[91],"annotated":[92],"intensity":[95],"ratings":[96],"cold":[99,174],"pressor":[100],"task.":[101],"model":[103,232],"takes":[104],"mel":[105],"spectrogram":[106],"features,":[107],"converts":[108],"them":[109],"into":[110],"NVGs,":[111],"then":[113],"uses":[114],"adjacency-aware":[115],"neighbor":[116],"features":[117,235],"ADRU":[119,192],"sort":[121],"them.":[122],"To":[123],"make":[124,242],"things":[125],"clearer,":[126],"conducted":[128],"explainability":[130,226],"analysis":[131,227],"following":[133],"gradients":[134],"using":[136],"occlusion":[137],"tests":[138],"the":[140,145,150,154,169,177,188,230],"raw":[141],"waveform":[142],"find":[144],"time":[146],"periods":[147],"had":[149],"biggest":[151],"impact":[152],"model\u2019s":[155],"predictions.":[157,244],"method":[159],"could":[160],"distinguish":[161],"between":[162,171,180],"no":[165],"84.51%":[167],"of":[168,176,183,187],"time,":[170,178],"warm":[172],"87.30%":[175],"different":[181],"levels":[182],"severity":[185],"84.43%":[186],"time.":[189],"NVG-guided":[191],"consistently":[193],"yielded":[194],"more":[195],"balanced":[196],"evaluations":[197],"compared":[198],"conventional":[200],"machine":[201],"learning":[202],"techniques":[203],"minimal":[206],"CNN":[207],"baseline.":[208],"This":[209],"suggests":[210],"may":[213],"be":[214],"effective":[216],"comprehensible":[218],"approach":[219],"assessing":[221],"through":[223],"speech.":[224],"showed":[228],"proposed":[231],"like":[236],"prosodic":[237],"bursts":[238],"transitions":[240],"its":[243]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-04-02T13:53:19.096889","created_date":"2026-04-02T00:00:00"}
