{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7165768400","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.array.2026.101035","title":"AI-assisted simulation-based quantum image watermarking using NEQR and reversible quantum logic","display_name":"AI-assisted simulation-based quantum image watermarking using NEQR and reversible quantum logic","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-06-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7165768400","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.array.2026.101035"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.array.2026.101035","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.array.2026.101035","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210194039","display_name":"Array","issn_l":"2590-0056","issn":["2590-0056"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Array","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.array.2026.101035","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5139272167","display_name":"Aditya Kumar Sahu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210131147","display_name":"SRM University","ror":"https://ror.org/037skf023","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I145286018","https://openalex.org/I4210131147"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Aditya Kumar Sahu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SRM University-AP, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SRM University-AP, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210131147"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5139282980","display_name":"Swapnaneel Dhar","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I81556334","display_name":"Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham","ror":"https://ror.org/03am10p12","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I81556334"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Swapnaneel Dhar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Amrita School of Computing, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh- 522503, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Amrita School of Computing, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh- 522503, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I81556334"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5058102109","display_name":"Subhrajyoti Deb","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6939-0113"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I176010741","display_name":"Indian Institute of Forest Management","ror":"https://ror.org/00jet1p36","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I176010741"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I288749910","display_name":"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal","ror":"https://ror.org/02rb21j89","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I288749910"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Subhrajyoti Deb","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Technology, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Technology, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I176010741","https://openalex.org/I288749910"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071074098","display_name":"Amine Khaldi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1637-9129"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3019441195","display_name":"Laboratoire de Math\u00e9matiques d'Orsay","ror":"https://ror.org/03ab0zs98","country_code":"FR","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1294671590","https://openalex.org/I277688954","https://openalex.org/I3019441195"]}],"countries":["FR"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Amine Khaldi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Unit\u00e9 de formation et de recherche de math\u00e9matiques et d\u2019informatique, Universit\u00e9 de Strasbourg, France"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Unit\u00e9 de formation et de recherche de math\u00e9matiques et d\u2019informatique, Universit\u00e9 de Strasbourg, France","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3019441195"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5139226143","display_name":"Monalisa Sahu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210131147","display_name":"SRM University","ror":"https://ror.org/037skf023","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I145286018","https://openalex.org/I4210131147"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Monalisa Sahu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Software and System Engineering, School of SCOPE, VIT-AP University, Beside AP Secretariat, Amaravati, 522241, Andhra Pradesh, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Software and System Engineering, School of SCOPE, VIT-AP University, Beside AP Secretariat, Amaravati, 522241, Andhra Pradesh, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210131147"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019714454","display_name":"De Rosal Ignatius Moses Setiadi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6615-4457"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210127958","display_name":"Universitas Dian Nuswantoro","ror":"https://ror.org/02csxcg02","country_code":"ID","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210127958"]}],"countries":["ID"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"De Rosal Ignatius Moses Setiadi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Computer Science, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro, Semarang, Central Java 50131, Indonesia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Computer Science, Universitas Dian Nuswantoro, Semarang, Central Java 50131, Indonesia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210127958"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5071074098"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3019441195"],"apc_list":{"value":1680,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1680},"apc_paid":{"value":1680,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1680},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.66373546,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"31","issue":null,"first_page":"101035","last_page":"101035"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10682","display_name":"Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture","score":0.7014999985694885,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10682","display_name":"Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture","score":0.7014999985694885,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13182","display_name":"Quantum-Dot Cellular Automata","score":0.06080000102519989,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1703","display_name":"Computational Theory and Mathematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.05660000070929527,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum","display_name":"Quantum","score":0.49239999055862427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/image","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","score":0.4140999913215637},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/digital-watermarking","display_name":"Digital watermarking","score":0.3776000142097473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-logic","display_name":"Quantum logic","score":0.37290000915527344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-error-correction","display_name":"Quantum error correction","score":0.358599990606308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-computer","display_name":"Quantum computer","score":0.35109999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-algorithm","display_name":"Quantum algorithm","score":0.3160000145435333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-system","display_name":"Quantum system","score":0.3075000047683716}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5055000185966492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.49399998784065247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84114770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46344","display_name":"Quantum","level":2,"score":0.49239999055862427},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.4140999913215637},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C150817343","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q875932","display_name":"Digital watermarking","level":3,"score":0.3776000142097473},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169460222","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1206311","display_name":"Quantum logic","level":4,"score":0.37290000915527344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51003876","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1536431","display_name":"Quantum error correction","level":4,"score":0.358599990606308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58053490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176555","display_name":"Quantum computer","level":3,"score":0.35109999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.3483000099658966},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.3353999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137019171","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2623817","display_name":"Quantum algorithm","level":3,"score":0.3160000145435333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778926657","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum system","level":3,"score":0.3075000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.30630001425743103},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28855332","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q198099","display_name":"Quantization (signal processing)","level":2,"score":0.30410000681877136},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31972630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844240","display_name":"Computer vision","level":1,"score":0.2937000095844269},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2221639","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2877","display_name":"Discrete cosine transform","level":3,"score":0.2897000014781952},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99498987","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2210247","display_name":"Noise (video)","level":3,"score":0.2825999855995178},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58849907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2118982","display_name":"Quantum gate","level":4,"score":0.27880001068115234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111996192","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7269075","display_name":"Quantum noise","level":3,"score":0.2768999934196472},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187486625","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2122176","display_name":"Quantum channel","level":4,"score":0.2743000090122223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125411270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18653","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","level":2,"score":0.2703000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781238097","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175026","display_name":"Object (grammar)","level":2,"score":0.2702000141143799},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.2680000066757202},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121040770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q215675","display_name":"Quantum entanglement","level":3,"score":0.2632000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186468114","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836478","display_name":"Quantum network","level":4,"score":0.2632000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C63479239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7353546","display_name":"Robustness (evolution)","level":3,"score":0.25589999556541443},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.2515999972820282}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.array.2026.101035","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.array.2026.101035","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210194039","display_name":"Array","issn_l":"2590-0056","issn":["2590-0056"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Array","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.array.2026.101035","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.array.2026.101035","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210194039","display_name":"Array","issn_l":"2590-0056","issn":["2590-0056"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Array","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":42,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W990856609","https://openalex.org/W1993670244","https://openalex.org/W2001883788","https://openalex.org/W2051345884","https://openalex.org/W2079804329","https://openalex.org/W2253418336","https://openalex.org/W2474277219","https://openalex.org/W2515643315","https://openalex.org/W2602030865","https://openalex.org/W2604840828","https://openalex.org/W2636834824","https://openalex.org/W2795897374","https://openalex.org/W2863823347","https://openalex.org/W2887134005","https://openalex.org/W2893363714","https://openalex.org/W2900648844","https://openalex.org/W2903326665","https://openalex.org/W2906779047","https://openalex.org/W2912091021","https://openalex.org/W2971048994","https://openalex.org/W3011327157","https://openalex.org/W3015545401","https://openalex.org/W3041129792","https://openalex.org/W3131331144","https://openalex.org/W3192780116","https://openalex.org/W3200900497","https://openalex.org/W4291247350","https://openalex.org/W4323022537","https://openalex.org/W4366967280","https://openalex.org/W4367311277","https://openalex.org/W4377983763","https://openalex.org/W4382407394","https://openalex.org/W4387446006","https://openalex.org/W4392405568","https://openalex.org/W4396215348","https://openalex.org/W4396667847","https://openalex.org/W4402534290","https://openalex.org/W4403204529","https://openalex.org/W4407843598","https://openalex.org/W7108326059","https://openalex.org/W7117140949","https://openalex.org/W7128168056"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,96,164,212,340],"Flexible":[1],"Representation":[2,76,83],"of":[3,198,210,273,302,349,363],"Quantum":[4,74,82],"Images":[5],"(FRQI)":[6],"is":[7,215,228,268,295,315],"widely":[8],"used":[9],"for":[10,17,39,91,251,369,386,389,393,425],"encoding":[11],"images":[12],"into":[13],"normalized":[14],"quantum":[15,34,69,92,119,141,220,234,239,277,366,427],"states":[16],"secure":[18,252,370,426],"processing.":[19],"However,":[20],"it":[21,420],"suffers":[22],"from":[23],"high":[24,190],"computational":[25,240],"and":[26,50,52,57,89,129,147,179,227,259,279,286,337,358,391,398,406,417],"qubit":[27,40,101],"complexity,":[28],"limiting":[29],"its":[30,284,352],"scalability.":[31],"In":[32,288],"addition,":[33,289],"comparator":[35],"models,":[36,128,144,177],"often":[37],"employed":[38],"comparison,":[41],"remain":[42],"vulnerable":[43],"to":[44,182,231,270,281,297,305,317],"geometric":[45],"attacks":[46],"such":[47],"as":[48,421],"scaling":[49],"rotation":[51],"require":[53],"a":[54,67,118,154,204,271,422],"slow":[55],"embedding":[56,150,169,397],"extraction":[58,165,399],"rate.":[59],"To":[60],"address":[61],"these":[62],"challenges,":[63],"this":[64],"paper":[65],"proposes":[66],"novel":[68],"watermarking":[70,254,367,429],"technique":[71,98,267],"that":[72,376],"integrates":[73],"Image":[75],"(QIR)":[77],"with":[78,110,203],"the":[79,136,151,161,168,194,243,265,300,306,361,364,377,410],"Novel":[80],"Enhanced":[81],"(NEQR),":[84],"offering":[85],"improved":[86],"efficiency,":[87],"robustness,":[88],"security":[90],"image":[93,253,257,274,371,415,428],"processing":[94,275],"(QIP).":[95],"proposed":[97,137,213,266,341,365],"initiates":[99],"watermark":[100,134,152,185,378],"(QB)":[102],"generation":[103,379],"by":[104,192],"integrating":[105],"pixel":[106],"position":[107],"bits":[108],"(PPB)":[109],"an":[111,290,345],"arithmetic":[112],"average":[113],"(AA)-based":[114],"logic,":[115],"implemented":[116],"through":[117],"circuit":[120,138,221,380],"comprising":[121],"reverse":[122,172],"parallel":[123,173],"adder":[124],"(RPA),":[125],"dividing-4":[126],"(D4)":[127],"controlled-NOT":[130],"(CNOT)":[131],"gates.":[132],"For":[133],"embedding,":[135],"employs":[139],"RPA,":[140,387],"equal":[142],"(QE)":[143],"CNOT":[145],"gates,":[146,149],"Pauli-X":[148,180],"via":[153],"least":[155],"significant":[156],"bit":[157],"(LSB)":[158],"strategy":[159],"within":[160],"NEQR-encoded":[162],"image.":[163],"process":[166],"mirrors":[167],"architecture,":[170],"utilizing":[171],"subtractor":[174],"(RPS),":[175],"QE":[176],"CNOT,":[178],"gates":[181],"ensure":[183],"accurate":[184],"retrieval.":[186],"Experimental":[187],"results":[188],"demonstrate":[189,232],"robustness":[191],"achieving":[193],"highest":[195],"peak-signal-to-noise-ratio(PSNR)":[196],"values":[197],"59.97":[199],"decibels":[200],"(dB)":[201],"along":[202],"structural":[205],"similarity":[206],"index":[207],"matrix":[208],"(SSIM)":[209],"0.9999.":[211],"framework":[214,368],"validated":[216],"using":[217,255],"IBM":[218],"Qiskit-based":[219],"simulation":[222],"on":[223,246],"classical":[224],"computing":[225],"hardware":[226,235],"not":[229],"intended":[230],"fault-tolerant":[233],"execution":[236],"or":[237],"provable":[238],"advantage.":[241],"Rather,":[242],"work":[244],"focuses":[245],"simulation-level":[247],"reversible":[248,261],"quantum-circuit":[249],"modelling":[250],"NEQR-based":[256],"representation":[258],"quantum-compatible":[260],"logic":[262],"structures.":[263],"Furthermore,":[264],"subjected":[269],"range":[272],"attacks,":[276],"noise":[278],"decoherence":[280],"rigorously":[282],"evaluate":[283],"resilience":[285],"performance.":[287],"AI-assisted":[291,342],"attack":[292,320,356],"classification":[293,347],"module":[294,343],"incorporated":[296],"automatically":[298],"identify":[299],"type":[301],"distortion":[303],"applied":[304],"attacked":[307],"watermarked":[308],"images.":[309],"A":[310],"lightweight":[311],"Random":[312],"Forest":[313],"classifier":[314],"trained":[316],"classify":[318],"different":[319],"categories,":[321],"including":[322],"no":[323],"attack,":[324],"Gaussian":[325],"noise,":[326,328],"salt-and-pepper":[327],"median":[329],"filtering,":[330],"histogram":[331],"equalization,":[332],"JPEG":[333],"compression,":[334],"cropping,":[335],"rotation,":[336],"text":[338],"addition.":[339],"achieves":[344],"overall":[346],"accuracy":[348],"96.56%,":[350],"demonstrating":[351],"effectiveness":[353,412],"in":[354,413,430],"automatic":[355],"identification":[357],"further":[359],"strengthening":[360],"applicability":[362],"authentication.":[372],"Resource":[373],"analysis":[374],"shows":[375],"requires":[381],"354":[382],"QBs":[383,402],"(including":[384],"320":[385],"10":[388],"D4,":[390],"24":[392],"CNOT),":[394],"while":[395],"both":[396],"consume":[400],"400":[401],"each.":[403],"Theoretical":[404],"evaluation":[405],"empirical":[407],"validation":[408],"confirm":[409],"technique\u2019s":[411],"preserving":[414],"integrity":[416],"confidentiality,":[418],"establishing":[419],"viable":[423],"approach":[424],"real":[431],"time":[432],"applications.":[433]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2026-06-25T00:00:00"}
