{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7130932185","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","title":"Uncovering AI\u2019s hidden risks: an empirical analysis of health-related AI incidents and their ethical implications","display_name":"Uncovering AI\u2019s hidden risks: an empirical analysis of health-related AI incidents and their ethical implications","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7130932185","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210170699","display_name":"AI and Ethics","issn_l":"2730-5953","issn":["2730-5953","2730-5961"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"AI and Ethics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024787898","display_name":"Kerstin Denecke","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6691-396X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130692619","display_name":"Bern University of Applied Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/02bnkt322","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130692619"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Kerstin Denecke","raw_affiliation_strings":["Bern University of Applied Sciences, Bern, Switzerland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Bern University of Applied Sciences, Bern, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130692619"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5123637285","display_name":"Octavio Rivera-Romero","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79238269","display_name":"Universidad de Sevilla","ror":"https://ror.org/03yxnpp24","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Octavio Rivera-Romero","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic Technology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic Technology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124198614","display_name":"Guillermo Lopez-Campos","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I126231945","display_name":"Queen's University Belfast","ror":"https://ror.org/00hswnk62","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126231945"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Guillermo L\u00f3pez-Campos","raw_affiliation_strings":["Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen\u2019s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I126231945"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5109922481","display_name":"Enrique Dorronzoro","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I79238269","display_name":"Universidad de Sevilla","ror":"https://ror.org/03yxnpp24","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Enrique Dorronzoro","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronic Technology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronic Technology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I79238269"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5123670847","display_name":"Elia Gabarron","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I60053951","display_name":"Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia","ror":"https://ror.org/01460j859","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I60053951"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Elia Gabarron","raw_affiliation_strings":["Polibienestar Research Institute, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Polibienestar Research Institute, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I60053951"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5024787898"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130692619"],"apc_list":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"apc_paid":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.63189156,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"6","issue":"2","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.5623000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.5623000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.2117999941110611,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.03350000083446503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/harm","display_name":"Harm","score":0.7419000267982483},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/accountability","display_name":"Accountability","score":0.5426999926567078},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/health-care","display_name":"Health care","score":0.46700000762939453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/public-health","display_name":"Public health","score":0.3959999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/digital-health","display_name":"Digital health","score":0.37860000133514404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-research","display_name":"Empirical research","score":0.36910000443458557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ethical-issues","display_name":"Ethical issues","score":0.36649999022483826},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/information-ethics","display_name":"Information ethics","score":0.3580999970436096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medical-ethics","display_name":"Medical ethics","score":0.3422999978065491}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777363581","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15098235","display_name":"Harm","level":2,"score":0.7419000267982483},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776007630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2798912","display_name":"Accountability","level":2,"score":0.5426999926567078},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C160735492","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q31207","display_name":"Health care","level":2,"score":0.46700000762939453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55587333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1133029","display_name":"Engineering ethics","level":1,"score":0.4381999969482422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39549134","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133080","display_name":"Public relations","level":1,"score":0.4065999984741211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138816342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189603","display_name":"Public health","level":2,"score":0.3959999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.3953999876976013},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780433410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5276090","display_name":"Digital health","level":3,"score":0.37860000133514404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.36910000443458557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2986663376","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9465","display_name":"Ethical issues","level":2,"score":0.36649999022483826},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93474598","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1662553","display_name":"Information ethics","level":2,"score":0.3580999970436096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126086293","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q237151","display_name":"Medical ethics","level":2,"score":0.3422999978065491},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123201435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q456632","display_name":"Information privacy","level":2,"score":0.3269999921321869},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108827166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175975","display_name":"Internet privacy","level":1,"score":0.32280001044273376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.3224000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56739046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192060","display_name":"Knowledge management","level":1,"score":0.32019999623298645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C500143535","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q31022","display_name":"Professional ethics","level":2,"score":0.3138999938964844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75684735","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858810","display_name":"Big data","level":2,"score":0.29429998993873596},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C207267971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q120208","display_name":"Emerging technologies","level":2,"score":0.2897000014781952},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.28940001130104065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778132726","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096872","display_name":"Digital Revolution","level":2,"score":0.28780001401901245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779473830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1540899","display_name":"MEDLINE","level":2,"score":0.28139999508857727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202645933","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4930","display_name":"eHealth","level":3,"score":0.2809999883174896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779328685","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1475557","display_name":"Patient safety","level":3,"score":0.27959999442100525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778137410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2732820","display_name":"Government (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.2660999894142151},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777825026","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3410431","display_name":"Public trust","level":2,"score":0.2623000144958496},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12174686","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1058438","display_name":"Risk assessment","level":2,"score":0.25920000672340393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.2554999887943268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780589192","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7285140","display_name":"Raising (metalworking)","level":2,"score":0.2554999887943268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C128268270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2264133","display_name":"Ethical code","level":2,"score":0.25440001487731934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C69360830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1172237","display_name":"Data Protection Act 1998","level":2,"score":0.25429999828338623}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210170699","display_name":"AI and Ethics","issn_l":"2730-5953","issn":["2730-5953","2730-5961"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"AI and Ethics","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.qub.ac.uk/portal:openaire/b83824cd-8baa-4252-8c31-381542809d86","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://pure.qub.ac.uk/files/673796806/Uncovering_AI_s_hidden_risks.pdf","pdf_url":"https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/673796806/Uncovering_AI_s_hidden_risks.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402319","display_name":"Research Portal (Queen's University Belfast)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I126231945","host_organization_name":"Queen's University Belfast","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126231945"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Denecke, K, Rivera-Romero, O, L\u00f3pez-Campos, G, Dorronzoro, E & Gabarron, E 2026, 'Uncovering AI\u2019s hidden risks: an empirical analysis of health-related AI incidents and their ethical implications', AI & Ethics, vol. 6, no. 2, 169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.qub.ac.uk/portal:publications/b83824cd-8baa-4252-8c31-381542809d86","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/b83824cd-8baa-4252-8c31-381542809d86","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402319","display_name":"Research Portal (Queen's University Belfast)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I126231945","host_organization_name":"Queen's University Belfast","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I126231945"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Denecke, K, Rivera-Romero, O, L\u00f3pez-Campos, G, Dorronzoro, E & Gabarron, E 2026, 'Uncovering AI\u2019s hidden risks: an empirical analysis of health-related AI incidents and their ethical implications', AI & Ethics, vol. 6, no. 2, 169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s43681-026-01012-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210170699","display_name":"AI and Ethics","issn_l":"2730-5953","issn":["2730-5953","2730-5961"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"AI and Ethics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Gender equality","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/5","score":0.48143720626831055}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7130932185.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7130932185.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":40,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2290283963","https://openalex.org/W2941249574","https://openalex.org/W3165271848","https://openalex.org/W4212915308","https://openalex.org/W4290033826","https://openalex.org/W4306361994","https://openalex.org/W4311668674","https://openalex.org/W4362602778","https://openalex.org/W4387880627","https://openalex.org/W4388862772","https://openalex.org/W4389732527","https://openalex.org/W4391229244","https://openalex.org/W4393287322","https://openalex.org/W4394803801","https://openalex.org/W4394967854","https://openalex.org/W4396547528","https://openalex.org/W4400862962","https://openalex.org/W4401165605","https://openalex.org/W4401801755","https://openalex.org/W4403007459","https://openalex.org/W4404364326","https://openalex.org/W4406120894","https://openalex.org/W4406130011","https://openalex.org/W4408344375","https://openalex.org/W4408406037","https://openalex.org/W4408693357","https://openalex.org/W4408796468","https://openalex.org/W4409473464","https://openalex.org/W4409656189","https://openalex.org/W4410125230","https://openalex.org/W4410178347","https://openalex.org/W4410448433","https://openalex.org/W4410496163","https://openalex.org/W4411021711","https://openalex.org/W4411337794","https://openalex.org/W4411960392","https://openalex.org/W4413052134","https://openalex.org/W4414756677","https://openalex.org/W6888746903","https://openalex.org/W7126465143"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,35,151,175],"rapid":[1],"integration":[2],"of":[3,37,51,71,159,179,197,218],"artificial":[4],"intelligence":[5],"(AI)":[6],"into":[7,134],"healthcare":[8,63],"has":[9],"transformed":[10],"clinical":[11],"decision-making,":[12],"digital":[13],"therapeutics,":[14],"and":[15,30,58,79,91,112,118,141,143,194,199,216,221,230],"precision":[16],"medicine,":[17],"yet":[18],"this":[19],"technological":[20],"revolution":[21],"raises":[22],"profound":[23],"ethical":[24,69,167],"questions":[25,188],"about":[26,189],"patient":[27],"safety,":[28,229],"transparency,":[29],"accountability":[31],"in":[32,48,62,169,173,234],"medical":[33],"care.":[34],"implications":[36,70],"AI-related":[38,203],"adverse":[39],"events":[40],"remain":[41],"critically":[42],"underexamined,":[43],"creating":[44],"a":[45,212],"significant":[46],"gap":[47],"our":[49],"understanding":[50],"how":[52],"these":[53],"technologies":[54,73],"may":[55,182],"harm":[56],"patients":[57,198],"undermine":[59],"public":[60,77,89],"trust":[61],"systems.":[64],"This":[65],"study":[66],"addresses":[67],"the":[68,110,157,160,195,208],"AI":[72,98,148,171,219,228],"by":[74],"systematically":[75],"analyzing":[76],"repositories":[78],"databases":[80,90],"that":[81],"document":[82],"health-related":[83,97],"incidents.":[84,99],"We":[85],"identified":[86,152],"15":[87],"potential":[88],"repositories,":[92],"with":[93,145],"8":[94],"containing":[95],"488":[96],"After":[100],"removing":[101],"duplicates,":[102],"295":[103],"unique":[104],"incidents":[105,153,181,220],"were":[106,132,154],"analyzed,":[107],"primarily":[108],"from":[109,156],"US":[111],"UK,":[113],"spanning":[114],"2012":[115],"to":[116,201,224],"2025":[117],"affecting":[119],"diverse":[120],"health":[121],"domains,":[122],"including":[123,137],"cardiology,":[124],"COVID-19,":[125],"surgery":[126],"or":[127],"cancer":[128],"among":[129],"others.":[130],"Incidents":[131],"categorized":[133],"risk":[135,149],"types,":[136],"bias,":[138],"privacy":[139],"violations,":[140],"misinformation,":[142],"compared":[144],"five":[146],"established":[147],"frameworks.":[150],"reflected":[155],"lenses":[158],"Digital":[161],"Ethics":[162],"Canvas.":[163],"Our":[164,205],"analysis":[165],"reveals":[166],"gaps":[168],"current":[170],"systems":[172],"healthcare.":[174,235],"apparently":[176],"low":[177],"number":[178],"reported":[180],"suggest":[183],"underreporting,":[184],"potentially":[185],"raising":[186],"fundamental":[187],"moral":[190],"responsibility,":[191],"professional":[192],"duty,":[193],"right":[196],"society":[200],"understand":[202],"risks.":[204],"findings":[206],"highlight":[207],"urgent":[209],"need":[210],"for":[211],"more":[213],"detailed":[214],"assessment":[215],"surveillance":[217],"their":[222],"impact":[223],"enhance":[225],"surveillance,":[226],"improve":[227],"inform":[231],"evidence-based":[232],"policymaking":[233]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-03-18T14:38:29.013473","created_date":"2026-02-23T00:00:00"}