{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4414593941","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y","title":"Early Detection and Severity Classification of Diabetic Retinopathy Using Convolutional Neural Networks","display_name":"Early Detection and Severity Classification of Diabetic Retinopathy Using Convolutional Neural Networks","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-09-12","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4414593941","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210174798","display_name":"SN Computer Science","issn_l":"2661-8907","issn":["2661-8907","2662-995X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"SN Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5087824956","display_name":"S. A. Karthik","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I164861460","display_name":"Manipal Academy of Higher Education","ror":"https://ror.org/02xzytt36","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I164861460"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"S. A. Karthik","raw_affiliation_strings":["Manipal Institute of Technology Bengaluru, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Manipal Institute of Technology Bengaluru, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I164861460"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102020188","display_name":"M. Geetha","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"M. N. Geetha","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Vidyavardhaka College of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Vidyavardhaka College of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101841840","display_name":"K Prabhavathi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210154507","display_name":"Mandya Institute of Medical Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04wnsdv29","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I286135121","https://openalex.org/I4210154507"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"K. Prabhavathi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BGS Institute of Technology, B G Nagara, Mandya, Karnataka, India"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BGS Institute of Technology, B G Nagara, Mandya, Karnataka, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210154507"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060340777","display_name":"D Shashank","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Dhananjaya Shashank","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Science and Engineering, The National Institute of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Science and Engineering, The National Institute of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5114718695","display_name":"K. P. Suhaas","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"K. P. Suhaas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Science and Engineering, The National Institute of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Science and Engineering, The National Institute of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039636706","display_name":"M. Narender","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4239-8160"},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"M. Narender","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Science and Engineering, The National Institute of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Science and Engineering, The National Institute of Engineering, Mysuru, Karnataka, India","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5087824956"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I164861460"],"apc_list":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"apc_paid":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"fwci":4.988,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":4,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95647849,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"6","issue":"7","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11438","display_name":"Retinal Imaging and Analysis","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11438","display_name":"Retinal Imaging and Analysis","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2741","display_name":"Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10170","display_name":"Retinal Diseases and Treatments","score":0.9972000122070312,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2731","display_name":"Ophthalmology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11396","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare","score":0.9832000136375427,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3605","display_name":"Health Information Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/36","display_name":"Health Professions"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-network","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","score":0.6966999769210815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/binary-classification","display_name":"Binary classification","score":0.5978000164031982},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pattern-recognition","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","score":0.5852000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pooling","display_name":"Pooling","score":0.5687999725341797},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/classifier","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","score":0.527400016784668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.4041000008583069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/diabetic-retinopathy","display_name":"Diabetic retinopathy","score":0.40310001373291016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.3937999904155731}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7628999948501587},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.6966999769210815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66905080","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17005494","display_name":"Binary classification","level":3,"score":0.5978000164031982},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5852000117301941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70437156","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7228652","display_name":"Pooling","level":2,"score":0.5687999725341797},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5289999842643738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95623464","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1096149","display_name":"Classifier (UML)","level":2,"score":0.527400016784668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.4041000008583069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779829184","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q631361","display_name":"Diabetic retinopathy","level":3,"score":0.40310001373291016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.3937999904155731},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27181475","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q541014","display_name":"Cross-validation","level":2,"score":0.36329999566078186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776391266","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9612","display_name":"Fundus (uterus)","level":2,"score":0.36090001463890076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.35350000858306885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.32519999146461487},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.3215000033378601},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12267149","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q282453","display_name":"Support vector machine","level":2,"score":0.2786000072956085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34626388","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q721129","display_name":"Nomogram","level":2,"score":0.25929999351501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110083411","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1744628","display_name":"Statistical classification","level":2,"score":0.25699999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48372109","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3913","display_name":"Binary number","level":2,"score":0.2529999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778313320","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q550455","display_name":"Retinopathy","level":3,"score":0.2517000138759613}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210174798","display_name":"SN Computer Science","issn_l":"2661-8907","issn":["2661-8907","2662-995X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"SN Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s42979-025-04361-y.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210174798","display_name":"SN Computer Science","issn_l":"2661-8907","issn":["2661-8907","2662-995X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"SN Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414593941.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4414593941.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":35,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W3009103237","https://openalex.org/W3195790488","https://openalex.org/W4226244379","https://openalex.org/W4280635966","https://openalex.org/W4285139271","https://openalex.org/W4323021694","https://openalex.org/W4381433571","https://openalex.org/W4387037318","https://openalex.org/W4387423674","https://openalex.org/W4388035588","https://openalex.org/W4388776073","https://openalex.org/W4390737642","https://openalex.org/W4391654997","https://openalex.org/W4392406184","https://openalex.org/W4394854100","https://openalex.org/W4398133435","https://openalex.org/W4399039792","https://openalex.org/W4399139471","https://openalex.org/W4399980490","https://openalex.org/W4400265231","https://openalex.org/W4400315091","https://openalex.org/W4400681431","https://openalex.org/W4401172014","https://openalex.org/W4401808492","https://openalex.org/W4401973038","https://openalex.org/W4404521481","https://openalex.org/W4404739643","https://openalex.org/W4405524677","https://openalex.org/W4405756144","https://openalex.org/W4406990476","https://openalex.org/W4408412691","https://openalex.org/W4409975075","https://openalex.org/W4411023254","https://openalex.org/W4412671827","https://openalex.org/W4412699241"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Diabetic":[1],"retinopathy":[2],"(DR)":[3],"has":[4],"become":[5],"a":[6,40,50,104,111,116,123,138,154],"leading":[7],"cause":[8],"of":[9,13,42,65,72,74,157,162,191,213,231,238],"blindness,":[10],"and":[11,110,128,144,159,186,240],"detection":[12,69],"the":[14,56,61,78,142,171,192,214,229,232,236],"condition":[15],"at":[16],"an":[17,107,160],"early":[18,108,185],"stage":[19],"is":[20,27,165,247],"important":[21],"for":[22,249],"successful":[23,199],"treatment.":[24],"Nonetheless,":[25],"it":[26],"quite":[28],"difficult":[29],"to":[30,48,58,94,152,176,206,217],"detect":[31],"DR":[32,80,88,224,239],"in":[33,37,170,200,235],"its":[34,241],"initial":[35],"stages":[36],"areas":[38],"with":[39,87,119,137],"lack":[41],"medical":[43],"care.":[44],"This":[45],"research":[46],"seeks":[47],"develop":[49],"neural":[51,117],"network":[52,118],"that":[53,82,114],"will":[54],"have":[55,153,177],"ability":[57],"(1)":[59],"detecting":[60,201],"presence":[62],"or":[63],"absence":[64],"DR,":[66],"(2)":[67],"early,":[68],"(3)":[70],"classification":[71],"severity":[73,112,193,251],"DR.":[75,188],"We":[76],"used":[77],"APTOS":[79],"dataset":[81],"contains":[83],"3681":[84],"fundus":[85],"images":[86],"ratings":[89],"from":[90],"0":[91],"(no":[92],"DR)":[93],"4":[95],"(severe":[96],"proliferative":[97],"DR).":[98],"Three":[99],"distinct":[100],"models":[101,134,169],"were":[102,135],"trained:":[103],"binary":[105,148],"classifier,":[106],"detector,":[109],"classifier":[113,149,194],"use":[115],"three":[120,129],"convolutional":[121],"layers,":[122],"global":[124],"average":[125],"pooling":[126],"layer,":[127],"fully":[130],"connected":[131],"layers.":[132],"The":[133,147,189],"cross-validated,":[136],"fivefold":[139],"used,":[140],"tracking":[141],"training":[143],"validation":[145,155],"accuracy.":[146],"was":[150,195],"able":[151],"accuracy":[156,179,190],"96.2%":[158],"AUC":[161],"0.992,":[163],"which":[164],"higher":[166],"than":[167],"existing":[168],"literature.":[172],"Early":[173],"detector":[174],"managed":[175],"86%":[178],"but":[180,204,243],"had":[181],"difficulty":[182],"distinguishing":[183],"between":[184,222],"severe":[187,209],"79.4%,":[196],"being":[197],"very":[198],"healthy":[202],"subjects":[203],"failing":[205],"classify":[207],"more":[208,245],"cases,":[210],"possibly":[211],"because":[212],"model\u2019s":[215],"inability":[216],"discriminate":[218],"against":[219],"slight":[220],"differences":[221],"later":[223],"degrees.":[225],"Such":[226],"results":[227],"show":[228],"effectiveness":[230],"NN":[233],"usage":[234],"diagnostics":[237],"classification,":[242],"still,":[244],"work":[246],"required":[248],"better":[250],"prediction.":[252]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":4}],"updated_date":"2026-04-16T08:26:57.006410","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
