{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4410886305","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7","title":"Uncovering Measurement Biases in LLM Embedding Spaces: The Anna Karenina Principle and Its Implications for Automated Feedback","display_name":"Uncovering Measurement Biases in LLM Embedding Spaces: The Anna Karenina Principle and Its Implications for Automated Feedback","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-05-30","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4410886305","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S171267539","display_name":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education","issn_l":"1560-4292","issn":["1560-4292","1560-4306"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5092596165","display_name":"Abigail Gurin Schleifer","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I53964585","display_name":"Weizmann Institute of Science","ror":"https://ror.org/0316ej306","country_code":"IL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I53964585"]}],"countries":["IL"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Abigail Gurin Schleifer","raw_affiliation_strings":["Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I53964585"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5069756223","display_name":"Beata Beigman Klebanov","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20089843","display_name":"Princeton University","ror":"https://ror.org/00hx57361","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20089843"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Beata Beigman Klebanov","raw_affiliation_strings":["ETS Research Institute, Princeton, NJ, 08541, USA"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"ETS Research Institute, Princeton, NJ, 08541, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20089843"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5059416730","display_name":"Giora Alexandron","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2676-6912"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I53964585","display_name":"Weizmann Institute of Science","ror":"https://ror.org/0316ej306","country_code":"IL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I53964585"]}],"countries":["IL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Giora Alexandron","raw_affiliation_strings":["Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I53964585"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5092596165"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I53964585"],"apc_list":{"value":2190,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2790},"apc_paid":{"value":2190,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2790},"fwci":8.0747,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":3,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.96967714,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"35","issue":"5","first_page":"2821","last_page":"2855"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13083","display_name":"Advanced Text Analysis Techniques","score":0.973800003528595,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13083","display_name":"Advanced Text Analysis Techniques","score":0.973800003528595,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10320","display_name":"Neural Networks and Applications","score":0.9440000057220459,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.9419000148773193,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embedding","display_name":"Embedding","score":0.6482301950454712},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5374740958213806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/epistemology","display_name":"Epistemology","score":0.43507885932922363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/educational-technology","display_name":"Educational technology","score":0.4189279079437256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/calculus","display_name":"Calculus (dental)","score":0.36927419900894165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human\u2013computer-interaction","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","score":0.3487820029258728},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.33523350954055786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics-education","display_name":"Mathematics education","score":0.3294876217842102},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.2823641002178192},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/philosophy","display_name":"Philosophy","score":0.22985246777534485},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/medicine","display_name":"Medicine","score":0.08950725197792053}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41608201","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q980509","display_name":"Embedding","level":2,"score":0.6482301950454712},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5374740958213806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111472728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471","display_name":"Epistemology","level":1,"score":0.43507885932922363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C16443162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1068473","display_name":"Educational technology","level":2,"score":0.4189279079437256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777686260","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q144037","display_name":"Calculus (dental)","level":2,"score":0.36927419900894165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107457646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207434","display_name":"Human\u2013computer interaction","level":1,"score":0.3487820029258728},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.33523350954055786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.3294876217842102},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.2823641002178192},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.22985246777534485},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.08950725197792053},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199343813","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12128","display_name":"Dentistry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S171267539","display_name":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education","issn_l":"1560-4292","issn":["1560-4292","1560-4306"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s40593-025-00485-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S171267539","display_name":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education","issn_l":"1560-4292","issn":["1560-4292","1560-4306"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4410886305.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4410886305.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":78,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W321044765","https://openalex.org/W1569027050","https://openalex.org/W1574901103","https://openalex.org/W1852515838","https://openalex.org/W1967082761","https://openalex.org/W1992419399","https://openalex.org/W2023945161","https://openalex.org/W2062956682","https://openalex.org/W2113054345","https://openalex.org/W2118636245","https://openalex.org/W2122161412","https://openalex.org/W2134090198","https://openalex.org/W2150593711","https://openalex.org/W2293665254","https://openalex.org/W2313204173","https://openalex.org/W2488041515","https://openalex.org/W2560140854","https://openalex.org/W2572386335","https://openalex.org/W2601243251","https://openalex.org/W2607641023","https://openalex.org/W2740866094","https://openalex.org/W2746791238","https://openalex.org/W2767914965","https://openalex.org/W2805810098","https://openalex.org/W2886409168","https://openalex.org/W2893425640","https://openalex.org/W2952164904","https://openalex.org/W2953861156","https://openalex.org/W2966714320","https://openalex.org/W2970329359","https://openalex.org/W2970641574","https://openalex.org/W2970971581","https://openalex.org/W2990138404","https://openalex.org/W3005006660","https://openalex.org/W3012071850","https://openalex.org/W3027879771","https://openalex.org/W3030081171","https://openalex.org/W3037865544","https://openalex.org/W3090540127","https://openalex.org/W3133702157","https://openalex.org/W3157891944","https://openalex.org/W3168624591","https://openalex.org/W3173954987","https://openalex.org/W3177189402","https://openalex.org/W3214533270","https://openalex.org/W3214911045","https://openalex.org/W4205184268","https://openalex.org/W4220659381","https://openalex.org/W4220851938","https://openalex.org/W4221143046","https://openalex.org/W4235169531","https://openalex.org/W4281632842","https://openalex.org/W4281690148","https://openalex.org/W4285232264","https://openalex.org/W4285294416","https://openalex.org/W4295714264","https://openalex.org/W4303649067","https://openalex.org/W4310123629","https://openalex.org/W4310494058","https://openalex.org/W4323572368","https://openalex.org/W4385570189","https://openalex.org/W4385570207","https://openalex.org/W4385572794","https://openalex.org/W4386892339","https://openalex.org/W4389523716","https://openalex.org/W4389895211","https://openalex.org/W4390730089","https://openalex.org/W4391226414","https://openalex.org/W4399530612","https://openalex.org/W4399597472","https://openalex.org/W4400187156","https://openalex.org/W4400216957","https://openalex.org/W4403847593","https://openalex.org/W4404658388","https://openalex.org/W4406753410","https://openalex.org/W4408325149","https://openalex.org/W6675354045","https://openalex.org/W6767715011"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2081900870","https://openalex.org/W2037549926","https://openalex.org/W2345479200","https://openalex.org/W2183306018","https://openalex.org/W2849310602","https://openalex.org/W3006008237","https://openalex.org/W2419146053","https://openalex.org/W4388890789","https://openalex.org/W2088247287","https://openalex.org/W2963903416"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Large":[1],"Language":[2],"Models":[3],"(LLMs)":[4],"are":[5,222],"becoming":[6],"increasingly":[7],"popular":[8],"in":[9,81,144,163,226,241],"assessment":[10,281],"systems":[11,32],"for":[12,274],"analyzing":[13],"and":[14,150,197,200,239,277],"providing":[15],"personalized":[16],"feedback":[17],"on":[18,35],"student":[19,55,79,127,154],"responses":[20,48,80,97,128,155,169,190,221],"to":[21,41,59,85,121,138,167,223,259],"open-ended":[22],"questions.":[23],"However,":[24],"the":[25,36,39,44,51,92,116,124,139,142,145,164,172,185,188,198,210,212,215,217,227,235,242,260],"quality":[26,186,213],"of":[27,38,54,78,101,141,175,187,195,202,214,244,267],"diagnosis":[28],"provided":[29],"by":[30,98],"such":[31],"depends":[33],"heavily":[34],"ability":[37],"LLMs":[40],"accurately":[42],"capture":[43],"subtle":[45],"differences":[46],"between":[47,123,184,264],"that":[49,95,152,170,209,250,262],"represent":[50],"key":[52,265],"types":[53],"reasoning,":[56],"also":[57],"referred":[58],"as":[60,153],"Knowledge":[61],"Profiles":[62],"(KPs).":[63],"In":[64],"this":[65,135],"study,":[66],"we":[67,179,207,233],"compared":[68],"expert-defined":[69],"KPs":[70,94,143],"with":[71,91],"data-driven":[72],"clusters":[73,89,112],"generated":[74],"from":[75],"LLM":[76,147,251],"embeddings":[77,252],"biology.":[82],"We":[83,132],"aimed":[84],"determine":[86],"whether":[87],"LLM-based":[88,279],"align":[90],"theory-driven":[93],"classify":[96],"their":[99,203],"level":[100],"conceptual":[102,176,268],"accuracy.":[103],"Our":[104],"findings":[105],"revealed":[106],"a":[107,181],"\u2018discoverability":[108,136],"bias\u2019":[109,137],"where":[110],"LLM-derived":[111],"captured":[113],"reasonably":[114],"well":[115],"high-quality":[117],"responses,":[118],"but":[119],"failed":[120],"distinguish":[122,263],"different":[125],"ways":[126],"can":[129],"be":[130,255],"incorrect.":[131],"then":[133],"traced":[134],"representations":[140],"pre-trained":[146],"embedding":[148,165,228],"space":[149,166],"showed":[151],"become":[156,160],"more":[157],"wrong,":[158],"they":[159],"less":[161,218],"similar":[162,219],"other":[168,225],"reveal":[171],"same":[173],"type":[174],"error.":[177],"Furthermore,":[178],"found":[180,208],"strong":[182],"relationship":[183],"KP":[189],"(correct":[191],"or":[192],"various":[193],"degrees":[194],"incorrect)":[196],"shape":[199],"density":[201],"embeddings-based":[204],"representation.":[205],"Specifically,":[206],"lower":[211],"KP,":[216],"its":[220],"each":[224],"space.":[229],"This":[230,270],"phenomenon,":[231],"which":[232],"call":[234],"\u2018Anna":[236],"Karenina":[237],"Principle\u2019":[238],"study":[240],"context":[243],"automated":[245],"short":[246],"answer":[247],"scoring,":[248],"suggests":[249],"may":[253],"not":[254],"sufficiently":[256],"sensitive":[257],"out-of-the-box":[258],"nuances":[261],"profiles":[266],"understanding.":[269],"limitation":[271],"poses":[272],"challenges":[273],"developing":[275],"fair":[276],"effective":[278],"formative":[280],"systems.":[282]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-03-15T09:29:46.208133","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}