{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4409157490","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4","title":"A survey on multilingual large language models: corpora, alignment, and bias","display_name":"A survey on multilingual large language models: corpora, alignment, and bias","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-04-03","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4409157490","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210231404","display_name":"Frontiers of Computer Science","issn_l":"2095-2228","issn":["2095-2228","2095-2236"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311889","host_organization_name":"Higher Education Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311889"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Higher Education Press"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers of Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5110742985","display_name":"Yuemei Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0223-7146"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I109173049","display_name":"Beijing Foreign Studies University","ror":"https://ror.org/00jdr0662","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yuemei Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100950694","display_name":"Ling Hu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6139-1759"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I109173049","display_name":"Beijing Foreign Studies University","ror":"https://ror.org/00jdr0662","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ling Hu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102608993","display_name":"Jiayi Zhao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-3789-000X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I109173049","display_name":"Beijing Foreign Studies University","ror":"https://ror.org/00jdr0662","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiayi Zhao","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083808534","display_name":"Zihan Qiu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I109173049","display_name":"Beijing Foreign Studies University","ror":"https://ror.org/00jdr0662","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zihan Qiu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5061066944","display_name":"Kexin Xu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7389-0874"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I109173049","display_name":"Beijing Foreign Studies University","ror":"https://ror.org/00jdr0662","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kexin Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111325372","display_name":"Yuqi Ye","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-7517-000X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I109173049","display_name":"Beijing Foreign Studies University","ror":"https://ror.org/00jdr0662","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuqi Ye","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5112553010","display_name":"Hanwen Gu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4186-378X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I109173049","display_name":"Beijing Foreign Studies University","ror":"https://ror.org/00jdr0662","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hanwen Gu","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, 100089, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":7,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5110742985"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I109173049"],"apc_list":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"apc_paid":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"fwci":89.7354,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":38,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99942459,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"19","issue":"11","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.9998999834060669,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10201","display_name":"Speech Recognition and Synthesis","score":0.9904999732971191,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.8890055418014526},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.5936021208763123},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.45055368542671204}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8890055418014526},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.5936021208763123},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.45055368542671204}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210231404","display_name":"Frontiers of Computer Science","issn_l":"2095-2228","issn":["2095-2228","2095-2236"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311889","host_organization_name":"Higher Education Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311889"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Higher Education Press"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers of Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11704-024-40579-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210231404","display_name":"Frontiers of Computer Science","issn_l":"2095-2228","issn":["2095-2228","2095-2236"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311889","host_organization_name":"Higher Education Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311889"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Higher Education Press"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Frontiers of Computer Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320335869","display_name":"National Social Science Fund of China","ror":null}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4409157490.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4409157490.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":103,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W55204438","https://openalex.org/W89279510","https://openalex.org/W128638292","https://openalex.org/W136741500","https://openalex.org/W1502957213","https://openalex.org/W1583837637","https://openalex.org/W2060277733","https://openalex.org/W2398936787","https://openalex.org/W2493916176","https://openalex.org/W2524182563","https://openalex.org/W2596567068","https://openalex.org/W2596989490","https://openalex.org/W2597601064","https://openalex.org/W2599674900","https://openalex.org/W2601748485","https://openalex.org/W2602856279","https://openalex.org/W2604292070","https://openalex.org/W2606555609","https://openalex.org/W2610930722","https://openalex.org/W2612560781","https://openalex.org/W2620949368","https://openalex.org/W2740887992","https://openalex.org/W2802105481","https://openalex.org/W2889574253","https://openalex.org/W2891555348","https://openalex.org/W2893425640","https://openalex.org/W2909212904","https://openalex.org/W2911293880","https://openalex.org/W2912083425","https://openalex.org/W2912500072","https://openalex.org/W2913954081","https://openalex.org/W2914304175","https://openalex.org/W2914584698","https://openalex.org/W2923014074","https://openalex.org/W2952328691","https://openalex.org/W2952638691","https://openalex.org/W2963472233","https://openalex.org/W2985620815","https://openalex.org/W3011574394","https://openalex.org/W3034115845","https://openalex.org/W3034402523","https://openalex.org/W3034469191","https://openalex.org/W3034913382","https://openalex.org/W3034999214","https://openalex.org/W3035241006","https://openalex.org/W3035252911","https://openalex.org/W3035296331","https://openalex.org/W3035379020","https://openalex.org/W3035390927","https://openalex.org/W3035591180","https://openalex.org/W3038047279","https://openalex.org/W3046484722","https://openalex.org/W3088409176","https://openalex.org/W3093456628","https://openalex.org/W3133702157","https://openalex.org/W3134354193","https://openalex.org/W3137010024","https://openalex.org/W3170344956","https://openalex.org/W3184324824","https://openalex.org/W3185212449","https://openalex.org/W3200232291","https://openalex.org/W3200726972","https://openalex.org/W3202415077","https://openalex.org/W3213418658","https://openalex.org/W3215698779","https://openalex.org/W4205807230","https://openalex.org/W4206285331","https://openalex.org/W4213112742","https://openalex.org/W4223908421","https://openalex.org/W4226134572","https://openalex.org/W4226278401","https://openalex.org/W4285199616","https://openalex.org/W4287890950","https://openalex.org/W4298181573","https://openalex.org/W4308760226","https://openalex.org/W4365799947","https://openalex.org/W4384918448","https://openalex.org/W4385565879","https://openalex.org/W4385572757","https://openalex.org/W4385572801","https://openalex.org/W4385572824","https://openalex.org/W4385574290","https://openalex.org/W4385724599","https://openalex.org/W4386220752","https://openalex.org/W4388406624","https://openalex.org/W4388687124","https://openalex.org/W4389519093","https://openalex.org/W4389519545","https://openalex.org/W4389520396","https://openalex.org/W4390041933","https://openalex.org/W4390215452","https://openalex.org/W4399837985","https://openalex.org/W4401484139","https://openalex.org/W4402670135","https://openalex.org/W6778883912","https://openalex.org/W6810081322","https://openalex.org/W6811129797","https://openalex.org/W6811340617","https://openalex.org/W6847076894","https://openalex.org/W6850503672","https://openalex.org/W6851775633","https://openalex.org/W6852800892","https://openalex.org/W6856398428"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391375266","https://openalex.org/W2899084033","https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2390279801","https://openalex.org/W4391913857","https://openalex.org/W2358668433","https://openalex.org/W4396701345","https://openalex.org/W2376932109","https://openalex.org/W2001405890","https://openalex.org/W3204019825"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Based":[1],"on":[2,144],"the":[3,18,95,102,114,122,131],"foundation":[4],"of":[5,63,74,82,99,117,125,165],"Large":[6],"Language":[7],"Models":[8],"(LLMs),":[9],"Multilingual":[10],"LLMs":[11],"(MLLMs)":[12],"have":[13],"been":[14],"developed":[15],"to":[16,27,34,58,112],"address":[17],"challenges":[19,41,158],"faced":[20],"in":[21],"multilingual":[22,48,90,96,103,126],"natural":[23],"language":[24,46,138],"processing,":[25],"hoping":[26],"achieve":[28],"knowledge":[29],"transfer":[30],"from":[31],"high-resource":[32],"languages":[33],"low-resource":[35],"languages.":[36],"However,":[37],"significant":[38],"limitations":[39],"and":[40,50,89,101,128,151,159],"still":[42],"exist,":[43],"such":[44],"as":[45],"imbalance,":[47],"alignment,":[49],"inherent":[51],"bias.":[52],"In":[53],"this":[54],"paper,":[55],"we":[56,76,93,120,141,155],"aim":[57],"provide":[59],"a":[60,136],"comprehensive":[61],"analysis":[62],"MLLMs,":[64,83,145],"delving":[65],"deeply":[66],"into":[67],"discussions":[68],"surrounding":[69],"these":[70],"critical":[71],"issues.":[72],"First":[73],"all,":[75],"start":[77],"by":[78],"presenting":[79],"an":[80],"overview":[81],"covering":[84],"their":[85],"evolutions,":[86],"key":[87],"techniques,":[88],"capacities.":[91],"Secondly,":[92],"explore":[94],"training":[97],"corpora":[98],"MLLMs":[100,133],"datasets":[104],"oriented":[105],"for":[106],"downstream":[107],"tasks":[108],"that":[109],"are":[110],"crucial":[111],"enhance":[113],"cross-lingual":[115],"capability":[116],"MLLMs.":[118,166],"Thirdly,":[119],"survey":[121],"state-of-the-art":[123],"studies":[124],"representations":[127],"investigate":[129],"whether":[130],"current":[132],"can":[134],"learn":[135],"universal":[137],"representation.":[139],"Fourthly,":[140],"discuss":[142,156],"bias":[143],"including":[146],"its":[147],"categories,":[148],"evaluation":[149],"metrics,":[150],"debiasing":[152],"techniques.":[153],"Finally,":[154],"existing":[157],"point":[160],"out":[161],"promising":[162],"research":[163],"directions":[164]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":28},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-04-02T15:55:50.835912","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}