{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4377108302","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1","title":"Using latent variable models to make gaming-the-system detection robust to context variations","display_name":"Using latent variable models to make gaming-the-system detection robust to context variations","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-05-18","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4377108302","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37829326"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S160628929","display_name":"User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction","issn_l":"0924-1868","issn":["0924-1868","1573-1391"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5017908544","display_name":"Yun Huang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9993-7332"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yun Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065298176","display_name":"Steven Dang","orcid":null},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Steven Dang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Lexia Learning, Concord, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Lexia Learning, Concord, USA","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5010487459","display_name":"J. Elizabeth Richey","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0045-6855"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170201317","display_name":"University of Pittsburgh","ror":"https://ror.org/01an3r305","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170201317"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"J. Elizabeth Richey","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170201317"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5013469108","display_name":"Pallavi Chhabra","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pallavi Chhabra","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039927056","display_name":"Danielle R. Thomas","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8196-3252"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Danielle R. Thomas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048409726","display_name":"Michael W. Asher","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1006-8813"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135310074","display_name":"University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison","ror":"https://ror.org/01y2jtd41","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135310074"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michael W. Asher","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA","University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison, Madison, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135310074"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison, Madison, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135310074"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5005519512","display_name":"Nikki G. Lobczowski","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9018-2957"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170201317","display_name":"University of Pittsburgh","ror":"https://ror.org/01an3r305","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170201317"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nikki G. Lobczowski","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170201317"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5056605509","display_name":"Elizabeth A. McLaughlin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2650-6504"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Elizabeth A. McLaughlin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027575662","display_name":"Judith M. Harackiewicz","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4748-1174"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135310074","display_name":"University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison","ror":"https://ror.org/01y2jtd41","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135310074"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Judith M. Harackiewicz","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA","University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison, Madison, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135310074"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison, Madison, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135310074"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5047522207","display_name":"Vincent Aleven","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1581-6657"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vincent Aleven","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062550465","display_name":"Kenneth R. Koedinger","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5850-4768"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I74973139","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kenneth R. Koedinger","raw_affiliation_strings":["Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":11,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5017908544"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I74973139"],"apc_list":{"value":2390,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2990},"apc_paid":{"value":2390,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2990},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.04609705,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"33","issue":"5","first_page":"1211","last_page":"1257"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.9987000226974487,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.9987000226974487,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11122","display_name":"Online Learning and Analytics","score":0.996399998664856,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1706","display_name":"Computer Science Applications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10636","display_name":"Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods","score":0.9829999804496765,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/latent-variable","display_name":"Latent variable","score":0.7542153596878052},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variable","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","score":0.6131455898284912},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.601430356502533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/latent-variable-model","display_name":"Latent variable model","score":0.5954362750053406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5911468863487244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/latent-class-model","display_name":"Latent class model","score":0.42840832471847534},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.3359088599681854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.2351595163345337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.1842479407787323},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/geography","display_name":"Geography","score":0.12895429134368896}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51167844","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4422623","display_name":"Latent variable","level":2,"score":0.7542153596878052},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C182365436","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50701","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.6131455898284912},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.601430356502533},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C65965080","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1806885","display_name":"Latent variable model","level":3,"score":0.5954362750053406},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5911468863487244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70727504","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1806878","display_name":"Latent class model","level":2,"score":0.42840832471847534},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3359088599681854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.2351595163345337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.1842479407787323},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.12895429134368896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166957645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23498","display_name":"Archaeology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S160628929","display_name":"User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction","issn_l":"0924-1868","issn":["0924-1868","1573-1391"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:37829326","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37829326","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"User modeling and user-adapted interaction","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:10564808","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/10564808","pdf_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10564808/pdf/11257_2023_Article_9362.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"User Model User-adapt Interact","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11257-023-09362-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S160628929","display_name":"User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction","issn_l":"0924-1868","issn":["0924-1868","1573-1391"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.7200000286102295,"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1537101589","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Prime Award #OPP1196889","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306137","funder_display_name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306137","display_name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/0456r8d26"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320310207","display_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","ror":"https://ror.org/05x2bcf33"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4377108302.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":24,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1546796311","https://openalex.org/W1589525026","https://openalex.org/W1751507894","https://openalex.org/W1811740382","https://openalex.org/W1823967723","https://openalex.org/W1854695744","https://openalex.org/W1987626674","https://openalex.org/W2028829385","https://openalex.org/W2032829424","https://openalex.org/W2096363625","https://openalex.org/W2105043933","https://openalex.org/W2109901510","https://openalex.org/W2124689820","https://openalex.org/W2151896683","https://openalex.org/W2162353222","https://openalex.org/W2163605278","https://openalex.org/W2639930193","https://openalex.org/W2805006506","https://openalex.org/W2943153566","https://openalex.org/W3040135649","https://openalex.org/W3145887717","https://openalex.org/W3168038125","https://openalex.org/W4243004148","https://openalex.org/W7048248141"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4230230730","https://openalex.org/W1501016332","https://openalex.org/W4237379778","https://openalex.org/W1535265092","https://openalex.org/W1603253275","https://openalex.org/W4381250654","https://openalex.org/W2103023456","https://openalex.org/W1565287552","https://openalex.org/W2363394205","https://openalex.org/W3109783536"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Gaming":[0],"the":[1,45,116,124,128,131,167],"system,":[2],"a":[3,9,32,82,105,111,135,149,198,223,228],"behavior":[4],"in":[5,39,57,170,205,239],"which":[6],"learners":[7],"exploit":[8],"system's":[10],"properties":[11],"to":[12,22,75,120,226,231],"make":[13],"progress":[14],"while":[15],"avoiding":[16],"learning,":[17,53],"has":[18],"frequently":[19],"been":[20],"shown":[21],"be":[23],"associated":[24,50],"with":[25,41,51],"lower":[26],"learning.":[27],"However,":[28],"when":[29],"we":[30,161],"applied":[31],"previously":[33],"validated":[34],"gaming":[35,47,87,101,113,144,176,201,212,229],"detector":[36,145,169,230],"across":[37,70],"conditions":[38,73],"experiments":[40],"an":[42,141],"algebra":[43],"tutor,":[44],"detected":[46,119,211],"was":[48],"not":[49,217],"reduced":[52],"challenging":[54],"its":[55],"validity":[56,171],"our":[58],"study":[59],"context.":[60,132],"Our":[61,214],"exploratory":[62],"data":[63],"analysis":[64],"suggested":[65],"that":[66,90,163],"varying":[67],"contextual":[68,93],"factors":[69,94],"and":[71,95,177,202,207],"within":[72],"contributed":[74],"this":[76],"lack":[77],"of":[78,127,140],"association.":[79],"We":[80],"present":[81],"new":[83],"approach,":[84],"latent":[85,100],"variable-based":[86],"detection":[88],"(LV-GD),":[89],"controls":[91],"for":[92,220],"more":[96,122,190],"robustly":[97],"estimates":[98],"student-level":[99],"tendencies.":[102],"In":[103],"LV-GD,":[104],"student":[106,117],"is":[107,118,216,235],"estimated":[108],"as":[109,179,181],"having":[110],"high":[112,186],"tendency":[114],"if":[115],"game":[121],"than":[123],"expected":[125],"level":[126],"population":[129],"given":[130],"LV-GD":[133,164,183],"applies":[134],"statistical":[136],"model":[137],"on":[138,148,195],"top":[139],"existing":[142],"action-level":[143],"developed":[146],"based":[147],"typical":[150],"human":[151],"labeling":[152,156],"process,":[153],"without":[154],"additional":[155],"effort.":[157],"Across":[158],"three":[159],"datasets,":[160],"find":[162],"consistently":[165],"outperformed":[166],"original":[168],"measured":[172],"by":[173],"association":[174],"between":[175,200],"learning":[178],"well":[180],"reliability.":[182],"also":[184,236],"afforded":[185],"practical":[187],"utility:":[188],"it":[189],"accurately":[191],"revealed":[192,197],"intervention":[193],"effects":[194],"gaming,":[196],"correlation":[199],"perceived":[203],"competence":[204],"math":[206],"helped":[208],"understand":[209],"productive":[210],"behaviors.":[213],"approach":[215],"only":[218],"useful":[219],"others":[221],"wanting":[222],"cost-effective":[224],"way":[225],"adapt":[227],"their":[232],"context":[233],"but":[234],"generally":[237],"applicable":[238],"creating":[240],"robust":[241],"behavioral":[242],"measures.":[243]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-05-21T06:26:12.895304","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
