{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7153243174","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9","title":"Cultural differences in facial features based on SHAP analysis from machine learning model estimating learners' mental states","display_name":"Cultural differences in facial features based on SHAP analysis from machine learning model estimating learners' mental states","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-04-10","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7153243174","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S110206669","display_name":"Multimedia Tools and Applications","issn_l":"1380-7501","issn":["1380-7501","1573-7721"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Multimedia Tools and Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5033961293","display_name":"Guan-Yun Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2060-8470"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I114150738","display_name":"Fu Jen Catholic University","ror":"https://ror.org/04je98850","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I114150738"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16733864","display_name":"National Taiwan University","ror":"https://ror.org/05bqach95","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16733864"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201537933","display_name":"Tohoku University","ror":"https://ror.org/01dq60k83","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]}],"countries":["JP","TW"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Guan-Yun Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Information Management, Fu Jen Catholic University, No.510, Zhongzheng Rd., Xinzhuang Dist., New Taipei City, 242062, Taiwan","Graduate School of Information Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3-09 Aoba, Aramaki-aza Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan","Research Center for Digital Humanities, National Taiwan University, No.1 Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2060-8470","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Information Management, Fu Jen Catholic University, No.510, Zhongzheng Rd., Xinzhuang Dist., New Taipei City, 242062, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114150738"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate School of Information Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3-09 Aoba, Aramaki-aza Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Center for Digital Humanities, National Taiwan University, No.1 Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16733864"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5018937967","display_name":"Yasuhiro Hatori","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9880-0596"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201537933","display_name":"Tohoku University","ror":"https://ror.org/01dq60k83","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yasuhiro Hatori","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9880-0596","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103021315","display_name":"Yoshiyuki Sat\u014d","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8173-7666"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87572379","display_name":"Aichi Shukutoku University","ror":"https://ror.org/00z9wtp09","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87572379"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yoshiyuki Sato","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Human Informatics, Aichi Shukutoku University, 2-9 Katahira, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1197, Japan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8173-7666","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Human Informatics, Aichi Shukutoku University, 2-9 Katahira, Nagakute, Aichi, 480-1197, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87572379"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108399946","display_name":"C.-H. Tseng","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201537933","display_name":"Tohoku University","ror":"https://ror.org/01dq60k83","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chia-Huei Tseng","raw_affiliation_strings":["Interdisciplinary ICT Research Center for Cyber and Real Spaces, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan","Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6385-5669","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Interdisciplinary ICT Research Center for Cyber and Real Spaces, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054993345","display_name":"Hsiu\u2010Ping Yueh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8216-3836"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I16733864","display_name":"National Taiwan University","ror":"https://ror.org/05bqach95","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I16733864"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hsiu-Ping Yueh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Bio-Industry Communication and Development, National Taiwan University, No.1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan","Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No.1. Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan","Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, No.1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan","Research Center for Digital Humanities, National Taiwan University, No.1 Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8216-3836","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Bio-Industry Communication and Development, National Taiwan University, No.1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16733864"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, No.1. Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16733864"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, No.1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16733864"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Center for Digital Humanities, National Taiwan University, No.1 Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 10617, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I16733864"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000258847","display_name":"Satoshi Shioiri","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2149-6132"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201537933","display_name":"Tohoku University","ror":"https://ror.org/01dq60k83","country_code":"JP","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]}],"countries":["JP"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Satoshi Shioiri","raw_affiliation_strings":["Advanced Institute of So-Go-Chi Informatics, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan","Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2149-6132","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Advanced Institute of So-Go-Chi Informatics, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201537933"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5033961293"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I114150738","https://openalex.org/I16733864","https://openalex.org/I201537933"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.80935132,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"85","issue":"4","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10667","display_name":"Emotion and Mood Recognition","score":0.15620000660419464,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10667","display_name":"Emotion and Mood Recognition","score":0.15620000660419464,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11454","display_name":"Cultural Differences and Values","score":0.05389999970793724,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.03880000114440918,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/face","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","score":0.4291999936103821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cultural-diversity","display_name":"Cultural diversity","score":0.3610999882221222},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/facial-recognition-system","display_name":"Facial recognition system","score":0.3522000014781952},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cultural-background","display_name":"Cultural background","score":0.3154999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/emotion-recognition","display_name":"Emotion recognition","score":0.2955999970436096}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7541000247001648},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5874999761581421},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5394999980926514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779304628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503480","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","level":2,"score":0.4291999936103821},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125209646","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1338878","display_name":"Cultural diversity","level":2,"score":0.3610999882221222},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31510193","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1192553","display_name":"Facial recognition system","level":3,"score":0.3522000014781952},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2992975276","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11042","display_name":"Cultural background","level":4,"score":0.3154999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777438025","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1339090","display_name":"Emotion recognition","level":2,"score":0.2955999970436096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.274399995803833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.2705000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2982912361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1851867","display_name":"Mental model","level":2,"score":0.2703999876976013}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S110206669","display_name":"Multimedia Tools and Applications","issn_l":"1380-7501","issn":["1380-7501","1573-7721"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Multimedia Tools and Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11042-026-21230-9.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S110206669","display_name":"Multimedia Tools and Applications","issn_l":"1380-7501","issn":["1380-7501","1573-7721"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Multimedia Tools and Applications","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","score":0.45920896530151367,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320328107","display_name":"Fu Jen Catholic University","ror":"https://ror.org/04je98850"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7153243174.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7153243174.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":48,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1588539311","https://openalex.org/W1975879668","https://openalex.org/W2081112272","https://openalex.org/W2105198535","https://openalex.org/W2164777277","https://openalex.org/W2169570446","https://openalex.org/W2345031027","https://openalex.org/W2551442547","https://openalex.org/W2564040063","https://openalex.org/W2794783191","https://openalex.org/W2807126412","https://openalex.org/W2924532208","https://openalex.org/W2929144106","https://openalex.org/W2981630388","https://openalex.org/W2987628936","https://openalex.org/W3035798049","https://openalex.org/W3042136361","https://openalex.org/W3045333791","https://openalex.org/W3047096804","https://openalex.org/W3113831542","https://openalex.org/W3121950358","https://openalex.org/W3130203840","https://openalex.org/W3174752098","https://openalex.org/W3184590172","https://openalex.org/W3195433497","https://openalex.org/W3212751556","https://openalex.org/W4210482733","https://openalex.org/W4229367922","https://openalex.org/W4292979906","https://openalex.org/W4297237525","https://openalex.org/W4307156482","https://openalex.org/W4309072604","https://openalex.org/W4313622526","https://openalex.org/W4321453848","https://openalex.org/W4322773095","https://openalex.org/W4367551401","https://openalex.org/W4377099473","https://openalex.org/W4377834701","https://openalex.org/W4385154202","https://openalex.org/W4386497599","https://openalex.org/W4387757672","https://openalex.org/W4387789241","https://openalex.org/W4391350852","https://openalex.org/W4399355452","https://openalex.org/W4400187437","https://openalex.org/W4400643535","https://openalex.org/W4408251039","https://openalex.org/W4415240959"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Estimating":[0],"the":[1,50,54,57,61,64,92,99,111,128,131,139,146,155,167,172,187,196,201,211,218,221,231],"mental":[2,112,234],"states":[3,203,235],"is":[4,44],"important":[5,134,175],"for":[6,35,53,98,150,157,161,199,210],"tracking":[7],"students\u2019":[8,19],"e-learning":[9],"performance.":[10],"A":[11],"previous":[12],"study":[13,48,226],"by":[14],"our":[15],"team":[16],"revealed":[17,227],"that":[18,153],"facial":[20,80,237],"expressions":[21],"can":[22,39],"estimate":[23],"Japanese":[24,55],"learners\u2019":[25],"engagement":[26,129,212],"and":[27,59,78,86,182,206,236],"help-seeking":[28,202],"states.":[29,113,213],"However,":[30],"whether":[31],"a":[32,36,69,105,192],"model":[33],"made":[34],"single":[37],"culture":[38],"generalize":[40],"to":[41,56,109,122],"other":[42],"cultures":[43,169],"unknown.":[45],"The":[46,114,214,224],"current":[47,225],"applied":[49],"prediction":[51],"method":[52],"Taiwanese":[58],"compared":[60],"results":[62,190],"with":[63],"two":[65,168],"cultures.":[66],"Participants":[67],"solved":[68],"linguistic":[70],"problem":[71],"on":[72,217,240],"an":[73],"intelligent":[74],"tutoring":[75],"system":[76],"(ITS),":[77],"their":[79],"videos,":[81],"clicks":[82],"of":[83,220],"hint":[84],"buttons,":[85],"answers":[87],"were":[88,96,136,170],"recorded.":[89],"Facial":[90],"features,":[91,176],"Action":[93],"Units":[94],"(AUs),":[95],"used":[97,121],"LightGBM":[100],"(Light":[101],"Gradient":[102],"Boosting":[103],"Machine),":[104],"machine":[106],"learning":[107],"method,":[108],"classify":[110],"Shapley":[115],"Additive":[116],"exPlanations":[117],"(SHAP)":[118],"analysis":[119],"was":[120,154],"explain":[123],"feature":[124],"contributions.":[125],"For":[126],"estimating":[127,200],"state,":[130],"top":[132,173],"ten":[133,174],"features":[135,238],"more":[137,163],"around":[138,145],"eyes":[140],"(e.g.,":[141,148],"AU02)":[142],"than":[143],"those":[144],"mouth":[147],"AU23)":[149],"Japanese,":[151],"while":[152],"opposite":[156],"Taiwanese.":[158],"In":[159],"contrast,":[160],"help-seeking,":[162],"common":[164],"elements":[165],"between":[166,204,233],"in":[171,195,230],"such":[177],"as":[178],"AU04":[179],"(brow":[180],"lowerer)":[181],"AU20":[183],"(lip":[184],"stretcher).":[185],"Furthermore,":[186],"paired":[188],"t-test":[189],"showed":[191],"significant":[193],"difference":[194],"SHAP":[197,222,241],"values":[198],"Taiwan":[205],"Japan":[207],"but":[208],"not":[209],"discussion":[215],"focused":[216],"sum":[219],"values.":[223],"cultural":[228],"effects":[229],"relationship":[232],"based":[239],"analysis.":[242]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-04-29T09:16:38.111599","created_date":"2026-04-11T00:00:00"}