{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415221526","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8","title":"Semi-supervised learning from tabular data with autoencoders: when does it work?","display_name":"Semi-supervised learning from tabular data with autoencoders: when does it work?","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-15","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415221526","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62148650","display_name":"Machine Learning","issn_l":"0885-6125","issn":["0885-6125","1573-0565"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027930321","display_name":"Sintija Stevanoska","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3006985408","display_name":"Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/05060sz93","country_code":"SI","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3006985408"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210113529","display_name":"Jo\u017eef Stefan International Postgraduate School","ror":"https://ror.org/01hdkb925","country_code":"SI","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210113529"]}],"countries":["SI"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Sintija Stevanoska","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Knowledge Technologies, Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia","Jo\u017eef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Knowledge Technologies, Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3006985408"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Jo\u017eef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210113529"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5106416551","display_name":"Jurica Levati\u0107","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4025-051X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3006985408","display_name":"Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/05060sz93","country_code":"SI","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3006985408"]}],"countries":["SI"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jurica Levati\u0107","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Knowledge Technologies, Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Knowledge Technologies, Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3006985408"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5064609702","display_name":"Sa\u0161o D\u017eeroski","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2363-712X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I3006985408","display_name":"Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/05060sz93","country_code":"SI","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I3006985408"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210113529","display_name":"Jo\u017eef Stefan International Postgraduate School","ror":"https://ror.org/01hdkb925","country_code":"SI","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210113529"]}],"countries":["SI"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sa\u0161o D\u017eeroski","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Knowledge Technologies, Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia","Jo\u017eef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Knowledge Technologies, Jo\u017eef Stefan Institute, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3006985408"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Jo\u017eef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210113529"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5027930321"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I3006985408","https://openalex.org/I4210113529"],"apc_list":{"value":2390,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2990},"apc_paid":{"value":2390,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2990},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.1500628,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"114","issue":"11","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12535","display_name":"Machine Learning and Data Classification","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12535","display_name":"Machine Learning and Data Classification","score":0.9998000264167786,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12072","display_name":"Machine Learning and Algorithms","score":0.9944000244140625,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11652","display_name":"Imbalanced Data Classification Techniques","score":0.9919000267982483,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/benchmark","display_name":"Benchmark (surveying)","score":0.7190999984741211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/labeled-data","display_name":"Labeled data","score":0.6523000001907349},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-neural-network","display_name":"Artificial neural network","score":0.573199987411499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/class","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","score":0.5297999978065491},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/supervised-learning","display_name":"Supervised learning","score":0.5072000026702881},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.5031999945640564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/semi-supervised-learning","display_name":"Semi-supervised learning","score":0.4887999892234802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.47130000591278076}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7597000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185798385","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1161707","display_name":"Benchmark (surveying)","level":2,"score":0.7190999984741211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6854000091552734},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.6797999739646912},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776145971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30673951","display_name":"Labeled data","level":2,"score":0.6523000001907349},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.573199987411499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777212361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5127848","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.5297999978065491},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136389625","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q334384","display_name":"Supervised learning","level":3,"score":0.5072000026702881},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.5031999945640564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58973888","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1041418","display_name":"Semi-supervised learning","level":2,"score":0.4887999892234802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.47130000591278076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12725497","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q810247","display_name":"Baseline (sea)","level":2,"score":0.444599986076355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.4203000068664551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75294576","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165192","display_name":"Contextual image classification","level":3,"score":0.36390000581741333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.352400004863739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.3370000123977661},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.3325999975204468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984842247","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep neural networks","level":3,"score":0.32829999923706055},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177148314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170084","display_name":"Generalization","level":2,"score":0.3127000033855438},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C115961682","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q860623","display_name":"Image (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.2964000105857849},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51632099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3985153","display_name":"Training set","level":2,"score":0.29510000348091125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.2676999866962433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C59404180","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17013334","display_name":"Feature learning","level":2,"score":0.2630999982357025}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62148650","display_name":"Machine Learning","issn_l":"0885-6125","issn":["0885-6125","1573-0565"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10994-025-06898-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62148650","display_name":"Machine Learning","issn_l":"0885-6125","issn":["0885-6125","1573-0565"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G233026902","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"ASSAS (grant number 101059682) and ELIAS (grant 101120237)","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","funder_display_name":"European Commission"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3071541920","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"Research Program Knowledge Technologies (grant P2-0103), including the grant for young researchers to the first author; the Gravity project AI for Science (grant GC-0001); and the projects J1-3 J033, J2-2505, J2-4452, J2-4460, J3-3070, J4-3095, J5-4575,7-4636, J7-4637","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322554","funder_display_name":"Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320322554","display_name":"Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS","ror":"https://ror.org/059bp8k51"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415221526.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415221526.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":30,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1479807131","https://openalex.org/W1564069282","https://openalex.org/W1638732406","https://openalex.org/W2025768430","https://openalex.org/W2132862423","https://openalex.org/W2169281690","https://openalex.org/W2295598076","https://openalex.org/W2559655401","https://openalex.org/W2593649365","https://openalex.org/W2604272474","https://openalex.org/W2612690371","https://openalex.org/W2754478492","https://openalex.org/W2911964244","https://openalex.org/W2943766732","https://openalex.org/W2949676527","https://openalex.org/W2984353870","https://openalex.org/W2990138404","https://openalex.org/W3035160371","https://openalex.org/W3104335155","https://openalex.org/W3111356309","https://openalex.org/W3170720134","https://openalex.org/W3174086521","https://openalex.org/W4221162144","https://openalex.org/W4287019882","https://openalex.org/W4287322212","https://openalex.org/W4375869191","https://openalex.org/W4386954181","https://openalex.org/W4388092586","https://openalex.org/W4406170795","https://openalex.org/W4406665531"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Labeled":[1],"data":[2,47,130,181],"scarcity":[3],"remains":[4,48],"a":[5,15,56,70,136,172],"significant":[6],"challenge":[7],"in":[8,122,184],"machine":[9],"learning.":[10,187],"Semi-supervised":[11],"learning":[12],"(SSL)":[13],"offers":[14],"promising":[16],"solution":[17],"to":[18,45,91,141,171],"this":[19,51],"problem":[20],"by":[21],"simultaneously":[22],"leveraging":[23],"both":[24,101],"labeled":[25,110],"and":[26,66,95,103,159,163],"unlabeled":[27,129,180],"examples":[28],"during":[29],"training.":[30],"While":[31],"SSL":[32,61],"with":[33],"neural":[34,98,185],"networks":[35],"has":[36],"been":[37],"successful":[38],"on":[39,106],"image":[40],"classification":[41,67],"tasks,":[42],"its":[43,92,119,146],"application":[44],"tabular":[46,85,186],"limited.":[49],"In":[50],"work,":[52],"we":[53,134],"propose":[54],"SSLAE,":[55],"lightweight":[57],"yet":[58],"effective":[59],"autoencoder-based":[60],"architecture":[62],"that":[63,115],"integrates":[64],"reconstruction":[65],"losses":[68],"into":[69],"single":[71],"composite":[72],"objective.":[73],"We":[74],"conduct":[75],"an":[76],"extensive":[77],"evaluation":[78],"of":[79,109,168,175,179],"the":[80,166,177],"proposed":[81],"approach":[82],"across":[83],"90":[84],"benchmark":[86],"datasets,":[87],"comparing":[88],"SSLAE\u2019s":[89,142],"performance":[90],"supervised":[93,102,147],"baseline":[94],"several":[96],"other":[97],"approaches":[99],"for":[100],"semi-supervised":[104],"learning,":[105],"varying":[107],"amounts":[108],"data.":[111],"Our":[112],"results":[113],"show":[114],"SSLAE":[116],"consistently":[117],"outperforms":[118],"competitors,":[120],"particularly":[121],"low-label":[123],"regimes.":[124],"To":[125],"better":[126],"understand":[127],"when":[128,176],"can":[131],"improve":[132],"performance,":[133],"perform":[135],"meta-analysis":[137],"linking":[138],"dataset":[139],"characteristics":[140],"relative":[143],"gains":[144],"over":[145],"baseline.":[148],"This":[149],"analysis":[150],"reveals":[151],"key":[152],"properties\u2014such":[153],"as":[154],"class":[155],"imbalance,":[156],"feature":[157],"variability,":[158],"alignment":[160],"between":[161],"features":[162],"labels\u2014that":[164],"influence":[165],"success":[167],"SSL,":[169],"contributing":[170],"deeper":[173],"understanding":[174],"inclusion":[178],"is":[182],"beneficial":[183]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-04-09T08:11:56.329763","created_date":"2025-10-16T00:00:00"}