{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3139019272","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0","title":"Beneficial and harmful explanatory machine learning","display_name":"Beneficial and harmful explanatory machine learning","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-03-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3139019272","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0","mag":"3139019272"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62148650","display_name":"Machine Learning","issn_l":"0885-6125","issn":["0885-6125","1573-0565"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5087395187","display_name":"Lun Ai","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2731-482X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Lun Ai","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2731-482X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5076917665","display_name":"Stephen Muggleton","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6061-6104"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Stephen H. Muggleton","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070721694","display_name":"C\u00e9line Hocquette","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6732-1587"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"C\u00e9line Hocquette","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055671886","display_name":"Mark Gromowski","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3376-6566"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I94626330","display_name":"University of Bamberg","ror":"https://ror.org/01c1w6d29","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I94626330"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mark Gromowski","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cognitive Systems Group, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cognitive Systems Group, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I94626330"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027156356","display_name":"Ute Schmid","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1301-0326"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I94626330","display_name":"University of Bamberg","ror":"https://ror.org/01c1w6d29","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I94626330"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ute Schmid","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cognitive Systems Group, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cognitive Systems Group, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I94626330"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5087395187"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"],"apc_list":{"value":2390,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2990},"apc_paid":{"value":2390,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2990},"fwci":4.1995,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":35,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9493585,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"110","issue":"4","first_page":"695","last_page":"721"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.9980999827384949,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.9980999827384949,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12002","display_name":"Computability, Logic, AI Algorithms","score":0.974399983882904,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1703","display_name":"Computational Theory and Mathematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10906","display_name":"AI-based Problem Solving and Planning","score":0.9675999879837036,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.7186327576637268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6961461305618286},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.668816864490509},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/context","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","score":0.5974876880645752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task","display_name":"Task (project management)","score":0.5669286251068115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognition","display_name":"Cognition","score":0.5378877520561218},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computational-learning-theory","display_name":"Computational learning theory","score":0.4448690414428711},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/comprehension","display_name":"Comprehension","score":0.4361642003059387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-science","display_name":"Cognitive science","score":0.3379019498825073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/active-learning","display_name":"Active learning (machine learning)","score":0.22963473200798035},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/psychology","display_name":"Psychology","score":0.1947997510433197}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7186327576637268},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6961461305618286},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.668816864490509},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.5974876880645752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.5669286251068115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.5378877520561218},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50292564","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2462783","display_name":"Computational learning theory","level":3,"score":0.4448690414428711},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C511192102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5156948","display_name":"Comprehension","level":2,"score":0.4361642003059387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188147891","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q147638","display_name":"Cognitive science","level":1,"score":0.3379019498825073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77967617","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4677561","display_name":"Active learning (machine learning)","level":2,"score":0.22963473200798035},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.1947997510433197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187736073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2920921","display_name":"Management","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169760540","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207011","display_name":"Neuroscience","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62148650","display_name":"Machine Learning","issn_l":"0885-6125","issn":["0885-6125","1573-0565"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10994-020-05941-0.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62148650","display_name":"Machine Learning","issn_l":"0885-6125","issn":["0885-6125","1573-0565"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machine Learning","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality Education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.5799999833106995}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1795072736","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"EP/R022291/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5967575398","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"405630557","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320879","funder_display_name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320879","display_name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","ror":"https://ror.org/018mejw64"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0439y7842"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3139019272.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3139019272.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":96,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W12224070","https://openalex.org/W13537899","https://openalex.org/W34091735","https://openalex.org/W101172001","https://openalex.org/W137986209","https://openalex.org/W159980283","https://openalex.org/W619308876","https://openalex.org/W1481897178","https://openalex.org/W1492518088","https://openalex.org/W1502491548","https://openalex.org/W1528956864","https://openalex.org/W1543584403","https://openalex.org/W1552330288","https://openalex.org/W1572710235","https://openalex.org/W1576517754","https://openalex.org/W1600796577","https://openalex.org/W1610678877","https://openalex.org/W1769664091","https://openalex.org/W1984314602","https://openalex.org/W1994707871","https://openalex.org/W2001005400","https://openalex.org/W2001098248","https://openalex.org/W2004702017","https://openalex.org/W2009207944","https://openalex.org/W2009407994","https://openalex.org/W2016472244","https://openalex.org/W2018140810","https://openalex.org/W2020764470","https://openalex.org/W2030265753","https://openalex.org/W2032152873","https://openalex.org/W2036925775","https://openalex.org/W2067737176","https://openalex.org/W2068981034","https://openalex.org/W2088563966","https://openalex.org/W2091092523","https://openalex.org/W2101671026","https://openalex.org/W2104882621","https://openalex.org/W2128420091","https://openalex.org/W2145339207","https://openalex.org/W2159047538","https://openalex.org/W2160178500","https://openalex.org/W2160534505","https://openalex.org/W2165545766","https://openalex.org/W2167723047","https://openalex.org/W2170716495","https://openalex.org/W2182055801","https://openalex.org/W2257979135","https://openalex.org/W2296073425","https://openalex.org/W2318460192","https://openalex.org/W2395903764","https://openalex.org/W2402035130","https://openalex.org/W2520858206","https://openalex.org/W2579555219","https://openalex.org/W2604685646","https://openalex.org/W2752099845","https://openalex.org/W2757922262","https://openalex.org/W2774522520","https://openalex.org/W2802751390","https://openalex.org/W2806743074","https://openalex.org/W2891503716","https://openalex.org/W2891830784","https://openalex.org/W2907502844","https://openalex.org/W2942500381","https://openalex.org/W2950708852","https://openalex.org/W2954298906","https://openalex.org/W2960259221","https://openalex.org/W2963095307","https://openalex.org/W2965912206","https://openalex.org/W2996001543","https://openalex.org/W2999614490","https://openalex.org/W3000473298","https://openalex.org/W3011120880","https://openalex.org/W3020831056","https://openalex.org/W4237014361","https://openalex.org/W4241315306","https://openalex.org/W4250727746","https://openalex.org/W4251434133","https://openalex.org/W4255271639","https://openalex.org/W4301914006","https://openalex.org/W6601385996","https://openalex.org/W6605682375","https://openalex.org/W6628800745","https://openalex.org/W6629866860","https://openalex.org/W6633171094","https://openalex.org/W6634100129","https://openalex.org/W6636530465","https://openalex.org/W6654537108","https://openalex.org/W6655297870","https://openalex.org/W6672752436","https://openalex.org/W6684840438","https://openalex.org/W6694177581","https://openalex.org/W6713250230","https://openalex.org/W6743716967","https://openalex.org/W6752096879","https://openalex.org/W6775686901","https://openalex.org/W7020828652"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2808901550","https://openalex.org/W3021042235","https://openalex.org/W597958479","https://openalex.org/W2081348319","https://openalex.org/W2075742431","https://openalex.org/W1974622901","https://openalex.org/W4248151009","https://openalex.org/W2109644386","https://openalex.org/W185759126","https://openalex.org/W3127991229"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Given":[1],"the":[2,16,58,73,95,109,118,131,138],"recent":[3,70],"successes":[4],"of":[5,34,37,52,60,76,98,112,120,133,149],"Deep":[6],"Learning":[7],"in":[8,15,22,29,49,117],"AI":[9],"there":[10],"has":[11,93,185],"been":[12],"increased":[13],"interest":[14],"role":[17],"and":[18,125,153,166],"need":[19],"for":[20,66,82,101,129],"explanations":[21,135],"machine":[23,39,63,78,114,134,177,204],"learned":[24,64,79,115,178,205],"theories.":[25],"A":[26,69],"distinct":[27],"notion":[28],"this":[30,211],"context":[31,119],"is":[32,43,155],"that":[33,170,197,207],"Michie\u2019s":[35],"definition":[36],"ultra-strong":[38],"learning":[40,172,199],"(USML).":[41],"USML":[42],"demonstrated":[44],"by":[45,157,174,201],"a":[46,53,61,77,83,113,127,145,175,182,202],"measurable":[47],"increase":[48],"human":[50,59,102,162,171,191,198,220],"performance":[51,189,217],"task":[54,67],"following":[55],"provision":[56],"to":[57,90,209,214],"symbolic":[62,176,203],"theory":[65,81,116,179,206],"performance.":[68],"paper":[71,107],"demonstrates":[72],"beneficial":[74],"effect":[75],"logic":[80],"classification":[84],"task,":[85],"yet":[86],"no":[87],"existing":[88],"work":[89],"our":[91],"knowledge":[92],"examined":[94],"potential":[96],"harmfulness":[97,132],"machine\u2019s":[99],"involvement":[100],"comprehension":[103],"during":[104],"learning.":[105,193,221],"This":[106],"investigates":[108],"explanatory":[110],"effects":[111],"simple":[121],"two":[122,150],"person":[123],"games":[124],"proposes":[126],"framework":[128],"identifying":[130],"based":[136],"on":[137],"Cognitive":[139],"Science":[140],"literature.":[141],"The":[142],"approach":[143],"involves":[144],"cognitive":[146,183],"window":[147,184,212],"consisting":[148],"quantifiable":[151],"bounds":[152],"it":[154],"supported":[156],"empirical":[158],"evidence":[159],"collected":[160],"from":[161],"trials.":[163],"Our":[164],"quantitative":[165],"qualitative":[167],"results":[168],"indicate":[169],"aided":[173,200],"which":[180],"satisfies":[181],"achieved":[186],"significantly":[187,215],"higher":[188],"than":[190,218],"self":[192],"Results":[194],"also":[195],"demonstrate":[196],"fails":[208],"satisfy":[210],"leads":[213],"worse":[216],"unaided":[219]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":13},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":4}],"updated_date":"2026-03-27T05:58:40.876381","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}