{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7117541959","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8","title":"A comprehensive review on the hybrid BB84 E91 QKD protocol for enhanced security efficiency and practical hardware implementation in quantum cryptography","display_name":"A comprehensive review on the hybrid BB84 E91 QKD protocol for enhanced security efficiency and practical hardware implementation in quantum cryptography","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-12-30","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7117541959","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S5407036663","display_name":"Discover Computing","issn_l":"2948-2992","issn":["2948-2992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Discover Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121566591","display_name":"Gaurav Thakur","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I180952551","display_name":"Central University of Himachal Pradesh","ror":"https://ror.org/04v5nzb91","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I180952551"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210142231","display_name":"Central University of Jammu","ror":"https://ror.org/03nw1rg94","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210142231"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gaurav Thakur","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Central University of Jammu, Samba City, India","Department of Computer Science and Informatics, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala City, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Central University of Jammu, Samba City, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210142231"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Informatics, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala City, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I180952551"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5015572547","display_name":"Pradeep Chouksey","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9426-9320"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I180952551","display_name":"Central University of Himachal Pradesh","ror":"https://ror.org/04v5nzb91","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I180952551"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pradeep Chouksey","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Informatics, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala City, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Informatics, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala City, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I180952551"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121576354","display_name":"Mayank Chopra","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I180952551","display_name":"Central University of Himachal Pradesh","ror":"https://ror.org/04v5nzb91","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I180952551"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mayank Chopra","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Informatics, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala City, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Informatics, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala City, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I180952551"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5107823446","display_name":"Parveen Sadotra","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I180952551","display_name":"Central University of Himachal Pradesh","ror":"https://ror.org/04v5nzb91","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I180952551"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Parveen Sadotra","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Informatics, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala City, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Informatics, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala City, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I180952551"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121591452","display_name":"Sunil Kumar","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210139590","display_name":"Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India University, Jaipur","ror":"https://ror.org/03vr3gq96","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210139590"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Sunil Kumar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of IoT & Intelligent Systems, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of IoT & Intelligent Systems, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210139590"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5121591452"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210139590"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.792,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92889902,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"28","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.11230000108480453,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.11230000108480453,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10682","display_name":"Quantum Computing Algorithms and Architecture","score":0.11079999804496765,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.07739999890327454,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-cryptography","display_name":"Quantum cryptography","score":0.8155999779701233},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-key-distribution","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","score":0.7364000082015991},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.6464999914169312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bb84","display_name":"BB84","score":0.6223000288009644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-computer","display_name":"Quantum computer","score":0.45669999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/lattice-based-cryptography","display_name":"Lattice-based cryptography","score":0.4088999927043915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/financial-cryptography","display_name":"Financial cryptography","score":0.40459999442100525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptographic-protocol","display_name":"Cryptographic protocol","score":0.3711000084877014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-technology","display_name":"Quantum technology","score":0.35569998621940613}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144901912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q471906","display_name":"Quantum cryptography","level":4,"score":0.8155999779701233},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95466800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1027298","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","level":3,"score":0.7364000082015991},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.6464999914169312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6236000061035156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78203541","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2566969","display_name":"BB84","level":5,"score":0.6223000288009644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58053490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176555","display_name":"Quantum computer","level":3,"score":0.45669999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137660015","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6497083","display_name":"Lattice-based cryptography","level":5,"score":0.4088999927043915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C515488857","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q936407","display_name":"Financial cryptography","level":4,"score":0.40459999442100525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.3783999979496002},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33884865","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1254335","display_name":"Cryptographic protocol","level":3,"score":0.3711000084877014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190463098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2081419","display_name":"Quantum technology","level":4,"score":0.35569998621940613},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.35350000858306885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186468114","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836478","display_name":"Quantum network","level":4,"score":0.34119999408721924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126954023","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4316440","display_name":"Neural cryptography","level":4,"score":0.3301999866962433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C5320026","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2122216","display_name":"Quantum information science","level":4,"score":0.3273000121116638},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C160333310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6398153","display_name":"Key distribution","level":4,"score":0.31060001254081726},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C113775141","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q428691","display_name":"Computer engineering","level":1,"score":0.3102000057697296},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.29330000281333923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165922616","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4241181","display_name":"Strong cryptography","level":3,"score":0.28850001096725464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169699857","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2122243","display_name":"Quantum information","level":3,"score":0.28630000352859497},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187486625","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2122176","display_name":"Quantum channel","level":4,"score":0.2854999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.2847999930381775},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19150895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q582616","display_name":"ID-based cryptography","level":5,"score":0.28040000796318054},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203062551","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201339","display_name":"Public-key cryptography","level":3,"score":0.27379998564720154},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C186497982","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7119499","display_name":"PKCS #1","level":4,"score":0.2736000120639801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780385302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367158","display_name":"Protocol (science)","level":3,"score":0.259799987077713}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S5407036663","display_name":"Discover Computing","issn_l":"2948-2992","issn":["2948-2992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Discover Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:a5f5a4a9994d481bb321acd381af5ac7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/a5f5a4a9994d481bb321acd381af5ac7","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Discover Computing, Vol 28, Iss 1, Pp 1-37 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10791-025-09807-8.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S5407036663","display_name":"Discover Computing","issn_l":"2948-2992","issn":["2948-2992"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":false,"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Discover Computing","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","score":0.5025420784950256}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7117541959.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":64,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1516550212","https://openalex.org/W1529346119","https://openalex.org/W1966393367","https://openalex.org/W1971310259","https://openalex.org/W1985072561","https://openalex.org/W1991335679","https://openalex.org/W1997124098","https://openalex.org/W2006226307","https://openalex.org/W2015179126","https://openalex.org/W2018263239","https://openalex.org/W2051051926","https://openalex.org/W2066672555","https://openalex.org/W2068470138","https://openalex.org/W2075452309","https://openalex.org/W2088007991","https://openalex.org/W2104456715","https://openalex.org/W2105892311","https://openalex.org/W2110033949","https://openalex.org/W2121114422","https://openalex.org/W2121213780","https://openalex.org/W2122945788","https://openalex.org/W2133925777","https://openalex.org/W2142179838","https://openalex.org/W2336770924","https://openalex.org/W2555373370","https://openalex.org/W2584442059","https://openalex.org/W2797486331","https://openalex.org/W2800467655","https://openalex.org/W2901389979","https://openalex.org/W2905272571","https://openalex.org/W2950279976","https://openalex.org/W2974532997","https://openalex.org/W3005748417","https://openalex.org/W3019599936","https://openalex.org/W3038067977","https://openalex.org/W3089851493","https://openalex.org/W3137897630","https://openalex.org/W3147094296","https://openalex.org/W3152713705","https://openalex.org/W4210692119","https://openalex.org/W4247804076","https://openalex.org/W4286545600","https://openalex.org/W4286893835","https://openalex.org/W4288267464","https://openalex.org/W4292241706","https://openalex.org/W4379958515","https://openalex.org/W4380994578","https://openalex.org/W4383555113","https://openalex.org/W4383604276","https://openalex.org/W4384665780","https://openalex.org/W4385507508","https://openalex.org/W4385967954","https://openalex.org/W4387356277","https://openalex.org/W4389650318","https://openalex.org/W4391462588","https://openalex.org/W4391943849","https://openalex.org/W4392591383","https://openalex.org/W4392667359","https://openalex.org/W4394874699","https://openalex.org/W4395090603","https://openalex.org/W4396759307","https://openalex.org/W4398163854","https://openalex.org/W4399103134","https://openalex.org/W4400114064"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Cryptography":[0],"is":[1,27,48,96,135,181,226],"a":[2,15,28,162,203,219],"popular":[3],"term":[4],"in":[5,20,34,54,87,129,178],"this":[6,88,179],"modern":[7,22,92],"world":[8],"of":[9,30,37,57,70,83,91,98,104,112,125,132,151,165,186,215],"digital":[10,24,89,143],"era":[11],"which":[12],"has":[13,72],"achieved":[14],"great":[16],"focus":[17,177],"and":[18,101,202,210,243],"interest":[19],"the":[21,49,58,68,81,99,110,130,148,157,184,207],"inter-connected":[23],"world.":[25,144],"There":[26],"lot":[29],"productive":[31],"research":[32,126,169],"underway":[33],"such":[35,193],"domain":[36],"communication":[38],"so":[39],"as":[40,61,63,194],"to":[41,115,119,137,234],"make":[42],"it":[43,47],"more":[44],"secure,":[45],"because":[46],"most":[50],"fundamental":[51],"technique":[52],"used":[53],"day-to-day":[55],"life":[56],"common":[59],"people":[60],"well":[62],"cyber":[64],"professionals.":[65],"Over":[66],"time,":[67],"field":[69],"cryptography":[71,95,108,134,153,159,188,224,239],"experienced":[73],"various":[74,191],"breakthroughs":[75],"that":[76],"are":[77],"being":[78,127],"driven":[79],"by":[80],"progress":[82],"quantum":[84,94,113,133,152,158,187,195,199,223,238],"cryptography.":[85],"Unsurprisingly,":[86],"age":[90],"times,":[93],"one":[97],"new":[100],"efficient":[102],"means":[103],"secure":[105,121],"communication.":[106,122],"Quantum":[107],"syndicates":[109],"concepts":[111],"physics":[114],"project":[116],"safe":[117],"channels":[118],"achieve":[120],"The":[123,175],"calibre":[124],"done":[128],"realm":[131],"set":[136],"rise":[138],"amidst":[139],"an":[140],"increasingly":[141],"volatile":[142],"This":[145,229],"paper":[146,180],"discusses":[147],"latest":[149],"trends":[150],"specifically":[154],"focussing":[155],"on":[156,190],"protocols":[160,189,201,225],"with":[161,171,183],"significant":[163],"contribution":[164],"recently":[166],"published":[167],"essential":[168],"papers":[170],"quite":[172],"good":[173],"productivity.":[174],"primary":[176],"concerned":[182],"investigation":[185],"grounds":[192],"key":[196],"distribution":[197,200],"strategies,":[198],"comprehensive":[204],"comparison":[205],"between":[206],"past":[208],"techniques":[209],"recent":[211],"advancements.":[212],"In":[213],"light":[214],"these":[216],"cutting-edge":[217],"developments,":[218],"hybrid":[220],"framework":[221],"utilizing":[222],"also":[227],"proposed.":[228],"study":[230],"synthesizes":[231],"existing":[232],"findings":[233],"offer":[235],"insights":[236],"into":[237],"protocols,":[240],"future":[241],"challenges,":[242],"potential":[244],"applications.":[245]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-06-13T06:13:01.061226","created_date":"2025-12-30T00:00:00"}