{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7128295225","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5","title":"Automated detection of algorithm debt in deep learning frameworks: an empirical study","display_name":"Automated detection of algorithm debt in deep learning frameworks: an empirical study","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-07","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7128295225","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103015111","display_name":"Emmanuel Iko-Ojo Simon","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8494-6885"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I118347636","display_name":"Australian National University","ror":"https://ror.org/019wvm592","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Emmanuel Iko-Ojo Simon","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Australian National University (ANU), ANU School of Computing, Canberra, Australia"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8494-6885","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Australian National University (ANU), ANU School of Computing, Canberra, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019936781","display_name":"Chirath Hettiarachchi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7702-0718"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I118347636","display_name":"Australian National University","ror":"https://ror.org/019wvm592","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chirath Hettiarachchi","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Australian National University (ANU), ANU School of Computing, Canberra, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Australian National University (ANU), ANU School of Computing, Canberra, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5057086547","display_name":"Alex Potanin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4242-2725"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I118347636","display_name":"Australian National University","ror":"https://ror.org/019wvm592","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alex Potanin","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Australian National University (ANU), ANU School of Computing, Canberra, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Australian National University (ANU), ANU School of Computing, Canberra, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125339306","display_name":"Hanna Suominen","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I118347636","display_name":"Australian National University","ror":"https://ror.org/019wvm592","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I155660961","display_name":"University of Turku","ror":"https://ror.org/05vghhr25","country_code":"FI","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I155660961"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I188329596","display_name":"University of Canberra","ror":"https://ror.org/04s1nv328","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I188329596"]}],"countries":["AU","FI"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hanna Suominen","raw_affiliation_strings":["ANU School of Medicine and Psychology, Canberra, Australia","The Australian National University (ANU), ANU School of Computing, Canberra, Australia","University of Turku, Department of Computing, Turku, Finland"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"ANU School of Medicine and Psychology, Canberra, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I188329596"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Australian National University (ANU), ANU School of Computing, Canberra, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Turku, Department of Computing, Turku, Finland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I155660961"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5029327446","display_name":"Fatemeh H. Fard","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4505-6257"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2800978909","display_name":"Kelowna General Hospital","ror":"https://ror.org/01j25h453","country_code":"CA","type":"healthcare","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I104778310","https://openalex.org/I2800978909"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4405260628","display_name":"University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus","ror":"https://ror.org/04241wz75","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141945490","https://openalex.org/I4405260628"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fatemeh Fard","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of British Columbia, Department of Computer Science, Kelowna, Canada"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of British Columbia, Department of Computer Science, Kelowna, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I2800978909","https://openalex.org/I4405260628"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5103015111"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"],"apc_list":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"apc_paid":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.11671117,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"31","issue":"3","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.97079998254776,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.97079998254776,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10430","display_name":"Software Engineering Techniques and Practices","score":0.01119999960064888,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12423","display_name":"Software Reliability and Analysis Research","score":0.0019000000320374966,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"Scalability","score":0.6924999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/deep-learning","display_name":"Deep learning","score":0.6484000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/empirical-research","display_name":"Empirical research","score":0.6456000208854675},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/technical-debt","display_name":"Technical debt","score":0.4934999942779541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","score":0.48030000925064087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","score":0.4350000023841858}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7789999842643738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.7233999967575073},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.7206000089645386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48044578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q727490","display_name":"Scalability","level":2,"score":0.6924999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.6484000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.6456000208854675},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159198006","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1532172","display_name":"Technical debt","level":4,"score":0.4934999942779541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.48030000925064087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.4350000023841858},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.37950000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777904410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397","display_name":"Software","level":2,"score":0.36070001125335693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778755073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10858537","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","level":2,"score":0.3181000053882599},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778012447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1034415","display_name":"Scope (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.3093999922275543},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151956035","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1132755","display_name":"Logistic regression","level":2,"score":0.30300000309944153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110083411","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1744628","display_name":"Statistical classification","level":2,"score":0.2734000086784363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67186912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367664","display_name":"Data modeling","level":2,"score":0.2587999999523163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.2554999887943268}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au:1885/733807203","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1885/733807203","pdf_url":"https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstreams/d29d90ee-7907-44d5-ba42-400c717015a5/download","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402539","display_name":"ANU Open Research (Australian National University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I118347636","host_organization_name":"Australian National University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118347636"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"Journal article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-026-10807-5.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320431","display_name":"Australian National University","ror":"https://ror.org/019wvm592"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7128295225.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7128295225.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":80,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W298212978","https://openalex.org/W1566773348","https://openalex.org/W1993220166","https://openalex.org/W2045336717","https://openalex.org/W2053154970","https://openalex.org/W2104471998","https://openalex.org/W2130602377","https://openalex.org/W2144177913","https://openalex.org/W2149684865","https://openalex.org/W2166681119","https://openalex.org/W2216946510","https://openalex.org/W2395122565","https://openalex.org/W2441672559","https://openalex.org/W2487770199","https://openalex.org/W2514173981","https://openalex.org/W2579161546","https://openalex.org/W2612705982","https://openalex.org/W2751275235","https://openalex.org/W2767729231","https://openalex.org/W2806073060","https://openalex.org/W2911964244","https://openalex.org/W2963341956","https://openalex.org/W2963542740","https://openalex.org/W2963626623","https://openalex.org/W2965526865","https://openalex.org/W2966158888","https://openalex.org/W2998305386","https://openalex.org/W2998678832","https://openalex.org/W3007313497","https://openalex.org/W3027589693","https://openalex.org/W3028860567","https://openalex.org/W3107676683","https://openalex.org/W3119769340","https://openalex.org/W3130276836","https://openalex.org/W3135028703","https://openalex.org/W3192478068","https://openalex.org/W3196073181","https://openalex.org/W3208323417","https://openalex.org/W3212990991","https://openalex.org/W3215161831","https://openalex.org/W4210411691","https://openalex.org/W4256548243","https://openalex.org/W4293080012","https://openalex.org/W4308643031","https://openalex.org/W4311536997","https://openalex.org/W4323322659","https://openalex.org/W4365813074","https://openalex.org/W4367059011","https://openalex.org/W4381052858","https://openalex.org/W4381850275","https://openalex.org/W4382203557","https://openalex.org/W4382789896","https://openalex.org/W4383098202","https://openalex.org/W4383216151","https://openalex.org/W4384304865","https://openalex.org/W4384347827","https://openalex.org/W4385570594","https://openalex.org/W4385731420","https://openalex.org/W4387331153","https://openalex.org/W4388502424","https://openalex.org/W4391262680","https://openalex.org/W4391835605","https://openalex.org/W4392783219","https://openalex.org/W4394854121","https://openalex.org/W4398239242","https://openalex.org/W4398766423","https://openalex.org/W4399425032","https://openalex.org/W4400126951","https://openalex.org/W4400242255","https://openalex.org/W4400316819","https://openalex.org/W4403036283","https://openalex.org/W4404827250","https://openalex.org/W4405601299","https://openalex.org/W4405621206","https://openalex.org/W4405830980","https://openalex.org/W4405971183","https://openalex.org/W4406171775","https://openalex.org/W4406894913","https://openalex.org/W4409796391","https://openalex.org/W4417339614"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Expedient":[1],"design":[2],"choices":[3],"in":[4,52,67,98,212],"software":[5],"development":[6,14],"can":[7,70],"lead":[8],"to":[9,58,152,197,231,243],"Technical":[10],"Debt":[11,24],"(TD),":[12],"with":[13,156,181],"teams":[15],"documenting":[16],"such":[17],"decisions":[18],"as":[19,171,227],"Self-Admitted":[20],"TD":[21,30,86],"(SATD).":[22],"Algorithm":[23],"(AD)":[25],"is":[26,50,168],"a":[27,121,228],"type":[28],"of":[29,36,45,65,85,111,118,123,188,202,223],"resulting":[31],"from":[32,87,128,141],"the":[33,43,82,109,115,154,200,219],"suboptimal":[34],"implementation":[35],"algorithms,":[37],"which":[38],"impacts":[39],"system":[40,251],"performance.":[41],"Given":[42],"impact":[44],"AD,":[46,191],"its":[47],"automated":[48,83,116,209],"detection":[49,64,84,97,117,211],"crucial":[51],"Deep":[53],"Learning":[54,91],"(DL)":[55],"frameworks":[56,69,100,214,242],"due":[57],"their":[59],"complexity":[60],"and":[61,75,135,144,148,221,257],"evolution.":[62],"Early":[63],"AD":[66,96,119,167,183,210,245],"DL":[68,99,130,143,213,241],"help":[71,238],"mitigate":[72],"model":[73,255],"degradation":[74,256],"scalability":[76,258],"issues.":[77],"Despite":[78],"previous":[79],"studies":[80],"on":[81,95,160],"SATD":[88,126],"using":[89,120,240],"Machine":[90],"(ML)/DL":[92],"models,":[93,138,147,225],"research":[94,207],"remains":[101],"underexplored.":[102],"In":[103],"this":[104],"study,":[105],"we":[106],"empirically":[107],"investigated":[108],"performance":[110],"ML/DL":[112,137,194,224],"models":[113,195],"for":[114,190],"dataset":[122,155],"38,":[124],"881":[125],"comments":[127],"seven":[129],"frameworks.":[131],"We":[132],"trained,":[133],"evaluated,":[134],"tested":[136],"used":[139],"embeddings":[140],"both":[142],"large":[145],"language":[146],"explored":[149],"an":[150,186],"approach":[151],"enrich":[153],"handcrafted":[157],"features":[158],"based":[159],"AD-related":[161],"keywords.":[162],"Our":[163,206],"findings":[164],"reveal":[165],"that":[166],"frequently":[169],"misclassified":[170],"Design":[172],"or":[173],"Implementation":[174],"Debt.":[175],"Logistic":[176],"Regression":[177],"(an":[178],"ML":[179],"model)":[180],"Custom":[182],"Features,":[184],"achieved":[185],"F1-score":[187],"54%":[189],"outperforming":[192],"other":[193],"(42%":[196],"52%),":[198],"highlighting":[199],"importance":[201],"tailored":[203],"feature":[204],"engineering.":[205],"advances":[208],"by":[215,253],"providing":[216],"insights":[217],"into":[218],"strengths":[220],"limitations":[222],"serving":[226],"first":[229],"step":[230],"guide":[232],"future":[233],"tool":[234],"development.":[235],"This":[236],"could":[237],"developers":[239],"identify":[244],"issues":[246],"during":[247],"development,":[248],"thereby":[249],"enhancing":[250],"reliability":[252],"mitigating":[254],"challenges.":[259]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-06-25T08:15:23.626066","created_date":"2026-02-08T00:00:00"}
