{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4407706105","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","title":"Design pattern recognition: a study of large language models","display_name":"Design pattern recognition: a study of large language models","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-02-18","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4407706105","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070178656","display_name":"Sushant Kumar Pandey","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1882-2435"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I169381384","display_name":"University of Groningen","ror":"https://ror.org/012p63287","country_code":"NL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I169381384"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I66862912","display_name":"Chalmers University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/040wg7k59","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I66862912"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I881427289","display_name":"University of Gothenburg","ror":"https://ror.org/01tm6cn81","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I881427289"]}],"countries":["NL","SE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Sushant Kumar Pandey","raw_affiliation_strings":["Bernoulli Institute for Mathematics, Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands","Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Bernoulli Institute for Mathematics, Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I169381384"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I66862912","https://openalex.org/I881427289"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5034894607","display_name":"Sivajeet Chand","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-3930-1343"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I66862912","display_name":"Chalmers University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/040wg7k59","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I66862912"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I881427289","display_name":"University of Gothenburg","ror":"https://ror.org/01tm6cn81","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I881427289"]}],"countries":["SE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sivajeet Chand","raw_affiliation_strings":["Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I66862912","https://openalex.org/I881427289"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007649650","display_name":"Jennifer Horkoff","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2019-5277"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I66862912","display_name":"Chalmers University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/040wg7k59","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I66862912"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I881427289","display_name":"University of Gothenburg","ror":"https://ror.org/01tm6cn81","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I881427289"]}],"countries":["SE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jennifer Horkoff","raw_affiliation_strings":["Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I66862912","https://openalex.org/I881427289"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5074020697","display_name":"Miroslaw Staron","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9052-0864"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I66862912","display_name":"Chalmers University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/040wg7k59","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I66862912"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I881427289","display_name":"University of Gothenburg","ror":"https://ror.org/01tm6cn81","country_code":"SE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I881427289"]}],"countries":["SE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Miroslaw Staron","raw_affiliation_strings":["Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I66862912","https://openalex.org/I881427289"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5063577085","display_name":"Miros\u0142aw Ochodek","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9103-717X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I46597724","display_name":"Pozna\u0144 University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00p7p3302","country_code":"PL","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I46597724"]}],"countries":["PL"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Miroslaw Ochodek","raw_affiliation_strings":["Poznan University of Technology, Pozna\u0144, Poland"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Poznan University of Technology, Pozna\u0144, Poland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I46597724"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027296715","display_name":"Darko Durisic","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3901-873X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1340210623","display_name":"Volvo (Sweden)","ror":"https://ror.org/05b6ypc36","country_code":"SE","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1340210623"]}],"countries":["SE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Darko Durisic","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research & Development, Volvo Cars, Gothenburg, Sweden"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research & Development, Volvo Cars, Gothenburg, Sweden","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1340210623"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5070178656"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I169381384","https://openalex.org/I66862912","https://openalex.org/I881427289"],"apc_list":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"apc_paid":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"fwci":54.2247,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":16,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99837505,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"30","issue":"3","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10430","display_name":"Software Engineering Techniques and Practices","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11450","display_name":"Model-Driven Software Engineering Techniques","score":0.9933000206947327,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.5588501691818237},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-language-processing","display_name":"Natural language processing","score":0.46812477707862854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","score":0.35419201850891113}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5588501691818237},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.46812477707862854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.35419201850891113}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.rug.nl:openaire/8d41cff0-681f-4cfa-8c95-e38b2815fc03","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/8d41cff0-681f-4cfa-8c95-e38b2815fc03","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400420","display_name":"University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I169381384","host_organization_name":"University of Groningen","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I169381384"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Pandey, S K, Chand, S, Horkoff, J, Staron, M, Ochodek, M & Durisic, D 2025, 'Design pattern recognition : a study of large language models', Empirical Software Engineering, vol. 30, no. 3, 69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.rug.nl:openaire_cris_publications/8d41cff0-681f-4cfa-8c95-e38b2815fc03","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11370/8d41cff0-681f-4cfa-8c95-e38b2815fc03","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400420","display_name":"University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I169381384","host_organization_name":"University of Groningen","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I169381384"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Pandey, S K, Chand, S, Horkoff, J, Staron, M, Ochodek, M & Durisic, D 2025, 'Design pattern recognition : a study of large language models', Empirical Software Engineering, vol. 30, no. 3, 69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-025-10625-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4407706105.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4407706105.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":60,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W575847903","https://openalex.org/W1500435738","https://openalex.org/W1971144326","https://openalex.org/W1985258161","https://openalex.org/W1987971958","https://openalex.org/W1997783710","https://openalex.org/W2016297394","https://openalex.org/W2033185920","https://openalex.org/W2038090270","https://openalex.org/W2076528756","https://openalex.org/W2108323654","https://openalex.org/W2122111042","https://openalex.org/W2133959106","https://openalex.org/W2137107891","https://openalex.org/W2145343266","https://openalex.org/W2148190602","https://openalex.org/W2153853754","https://openalex.org/W2154499435","https://openalex.org/W2163412611","https://openalex.org/W2205176590","https://openalex.org/W2291952557","https://openalex.org/W2344444819","https://openalex.org/W2535049287","https://openalex.org/W2922100358","https://openalex.org/W2964150020","https://openalex.org/W2972082064","https://openalex.org/W2973433732","https://openalex.org/W2979566992","https://openalex.org/W3001664244","https://openalex.org/W3098605233","https://openalex.org/W3108032709","https://openalex.org/W3122473522","https://openalex.org/W3125328301","https://openalex.org/W3155146092","https://openalex.org/W3174220201","https://openalex.org/W3198685994","https://openalex.org/W4200633062","https://openalex.org/W4206251287","https://openalex.org/W4206503458","https://openalex.org/W4229009697","https://openalex.org/W4229025339","https://openalex.org/W4281805014","https://openalex.org/W4285280217","https://openalex.org/W4285490465","https://openalex.org/W4291213652","https://openalex.org/W4293783407","https://openalex.org/W4300854955","https://openalex.org/W4311887664","https://openalex.org/W4312803897","https://openalex.org/W4313185449","https://openalex.org/W4386212383","https://openalex.org/W4386952870","https://openalex.org/W4388483350","https://openalex.org/W4389162224","https://openalex.org/W4389215180","https://openalex.org/W4389236556","https://openalex.org/W4401719561","https://openalex.org/W6600050674","https://openalex.org/W6600603392","https://openalex.org/W6602680078"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391375266","https://openalex.org/W2899084033","https://openalex.org/W2748952813","https://openalex.org/W2390279801","https://openalex.org/W4391913857","https://openalex.org/W2358668433","https://openalex.org/W4396701345","https://openalex.org/W2376932109","https://openalex.org/W2001405890","https://openalex.org/W3204019825"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Context":[1],"As":[2],"Software":[3],"Engineering":[4],"(SE)":[5],"practices":[6,216],"evolve":[7],"due":[8],"to":[9,21,33,72,104,129,187],"extensive":[10],"increases":[11],"in":[12,42,45,67,173,183,195,205,228],"software":[13,214],"size":[14],"and":[15,23,100,124,141,151,166,199,217,221],"complexity,":[16],"the":[17,35,51,62,73,85,135,219],"importance":[18,220],"of":[19,37,53,64,80,88,148,181,223],"tools":[20],"analyze":[22],"understand":[24],"source":[25,46,108,229],"code":[26],"grows":[27],"significantly.":[28],"Objective":[29],"This":[30],"study":[31],"aims":[32],"evaluate":[34,130],"abilities":[36,222],"Large":[38],"Language":[39],"Models":[40],"(LLMs)":[41],"identifying":[43,196],"DPs":[44,83],"code,":[47],"which":[48,143,169],"can":[49,162,170,212],"facilitate":[50],"development":[52],"better":[54,175],"Design":[55],"Pattern":[56],"Recognition":[57],"(DPR)":[58],"tools.":[59,177],"We":[60,77],"compare":[61],"effectiveness":[63],"different":[65],"LLMs":[66,158,182,224],"capturing":[68],"semantic":[69],"information":[70],"relevant":[71],"DPR":[74,116,176,184,227],"task.":[75],"Methods":[76],"studied":[78],"Gang":[79],"Four":[81],"(GoF)":[82],"from":[84,107],"P-MARt":[86],"repository":[87],"curated":[89],"Java":[90,206],"projects.":[91],"State-of-the-art":[92],"language":[93],"models,":[94],"including":[95],"Code2Vec,":[96],"CodeBERT,":[97,142],"CodeGPT,":[98],"CodeT5,":[99],"RoBERTa,":[101],"are":[102,112,127,208],"used":[103,114,172],"generate":[105],"embeddings":[106,111],"code.":[109,230],"These":[110,210],"then":[113],"for":[115,225],"via":[117],"a":[118],"k-nearest":[119],"neighbors":[120],"prediction.":[121],"Precision,":[122],"recall,":[123],"F1-score":[125],"metrics":[126],"computed":[128],"performance.":[131],"Results":[132],"RoBERTa":[133],"is":[134,185],"top":[136],"performer,":[137],"followed":[138],"by":[139],"CodeGPT":[140],"showed":[144],"mean":[145],"F1":[146],"Scores":[147],"0.91,":[149],"0.79,":[150],"0.77,":[152],"respectively.":[153],"The":[154,179],"results":[155],"show":[156,218],"that":[157],"without":[159],"explicit":[160],"pre-training":[161],"effectively":[163],"store":[164],"semantics":[165],"syntactic":[167],"information,":[168],"be":[171],"building":[174],"Conclusion":[178],"performance":[180,204],"comparable":[186],"existing":[188],"state-of-the-art":[189],"methods":[190],"but":[191],"with":[192],"less":[193],"effort":[194],"pattern-specific":[197],"rules":[198],"pre-training.":[200],"Factors":[201],"influencing":[202],"prediction":[203],"files/programs":[207],"analyzed.":[209],"findings":[211],"advance":[213],"engineering":[215],"effective":[226]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":7}],"updated_date":"2026-03-21T08:13:44.787528","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
