{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4397009493","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4","title":"Two is better than one: digital siblings to improve autonomous driving testing","display_name":"Two is better than one: digital siblings to improve autonomous driving testing","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-05-17","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4397009493","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5045894581","display_name":"Matteo Biagiola","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7825-3409"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I57201433","display_name":"Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera italiana","ror":"https://ror.org/03c4atk17","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I57201433"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Matteo Biagiola","raw_affiliation_strings":["Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera italiana (USI), Via Buffi, 13, Lugano, Switzerland"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7825-3409","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera italiana (USI), Via Buffi, 13, Lugano, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I57201433"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5058345649","display_name":"Andrea Stocco","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8956-3894"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210134795","display_name":"Fortiss","ror":"https://ror.org/042x1tp92","country_code":"DE","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210134795"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I62916508","display_name":"Technical University of Munich","ror":"https://ror.org/02kkvpp62","country_code":"DE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I62916508"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Andrea Stocco","raw_affiliation_strings":["Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstra\u00dfe 3 Garching near Munich, Munich, Germany","fortiss GmbH, Guerickestra\u00dfe 25, Munich, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstra\u00dfe 3 Garching near Munich, Munich, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I62916508"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"fortiss GmbH, Guerickestra\u00dfe 25, Munich, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210134795"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5084639710","display_name":"Vincenzo Riccio","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6229-8231"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I129043915","display_name":"University of Udine","ror":"https://ror.org/05ht0mh31","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I129043915"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vincenzo Riccio","raw_affiliation_strings":["Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Udine, Via Gemona 92, Udine, Italy"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Udine, Via Gemona 92, Udine, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I129043915"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025438762","display_name":"Paolo Tonella","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3088-0339"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I57201433","display_name":"Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera italiana","ror":"https://ror.org/03c4atk17","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I57201433"]}],"countries":["CH"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Paolo Tonella","raw_affiliation_strings":["Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera italiana (USI), Via Buffi, 13, Lugano, Switzerland"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Universit\u00e0 della Svizzera italiana (USI), Via Buffi, 13, Lugano, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I57201433"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5045894581"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I57201433"],"apc_list":{"value":2890,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2890},"apc_paid":{"value":2890,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2890},"fwci":3.7732,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":21,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.94250233,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"29","issue":"4","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12810","display_name":"Real-time simulation and control systems","score":0.9890999794006348,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12810","display_name":"Real-time simulation and control systems","score":0.9890999794006348,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.9717000126838684,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11195","display_name":"Simulation Techniques and Applications","score":0.97079998254776,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1803","display_name":"Management Science and Operations Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/generalizability-theory","display_name":"Generalizability theory","score":0.6725505590438843},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6412674784660339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/set","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","score":0.5880357623100281},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","score":0.5249909162521362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/simulation","display_name":"Simulation","score":0.5057473182678223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software","display_name":"Software","score":0.4540662169456482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/process","display_name":"Process (computing)","score":0.45286792516708374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/test","display_name":"Test (biology)","score":0.43938884139060974},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/test-case","display_name":"Test case","score":0.421505331993103},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reliability-engineering","display_name":"Reliability engineering","score":0.40433794260025024},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/engineering","display_name":"Engineering","score":0.2405567765235901},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/machine-learning","display_name":"Machine learning","score":0.23627540469169617}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27158222","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5532422","display_name":"Generalizability theory","level":2,"score":0.6725505590438843},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6412674784660339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.5880357623100281},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.5249909162521362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44154836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45045","display_name":"Simulation","level":1,"score":0.5057473182678223},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777904410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7397","display_name":"Software","level":2,"score":0.4540662169456482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98045186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205663","display_name":"Process (computing)","level":2,"score":0.45286792516708374},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.43938884139060974},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C128942645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1568346","display_name":"Test case","level":3,"score":0.421505331993103},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C200601418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2193887","display_name":"Reliability engineering","level":1,"score":0.40433794260025024},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.2405567765235901},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.23627540469169617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152877465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208042","display_name":"Regression analysis","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163258240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342","display_name":"Power (physics)","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:air.uniud.it:11390/1276969","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11390/1276969","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401163","display_name":"Institutional Research Information System (University of Udine)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I129043915","host_organization_name":"University of Udine","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I129043915"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10664-024-10458-4.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S109852484","display_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","issn_l":"1382-3256","issn":["1382-3256","1573-7616"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Empirical Software Engineering","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8384393741","display_name":"Self-assessment Oracles for Anticipatory Testing","funder_award_id":"787703","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338335","funder_display_name":"H2020 European Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320338335","display_name":"H2020 European Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0472cxd90"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4397009493.pdf"},"referenced_works_count":57,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1966716734","https://openalex.org/W1993760289","https://openalex.org/W2328067583","https://openalex.org/W2586946380","https://openalex.org/W2775678306","https://openalex.org/W2784675945","https://openalex.org/W2888307014","https://openalex.org/W2912493354","https://openalex.org/W2953303875","https://openalex.org/W2957066083","https://openalex.org/W2962688977","https://openalex.org/W2962793481","https://openalex.org/W2963185411","https://openalex.org/W2963327228","https://openalex.org/W2968095971","https://openalex.org/W2969874973","https://openalex.org/W2972482509","https://openalex.org/W2981207549","https://openalex.org/W3035524670","https://openalex.org/W3036758131","https://openalex.org/W3045595218","https://openalex.org/W3080082779","https://openalex.org/W3085692321","https://openalex.org/W3089756992","https://openalex.org/W3100344681","https://openalex.org/W3101000982","https://openalex.org/W3103158293","https://openalex.org/W3104449953","https://openalex.org/W3120251014","https://openalex.org/W3125149369","https://openalex.org/W3133719020","https://openalex.org/W3141466727","https://openalex.org/W3160182403","https://openalex.org/W3160780501","https://openalex.org/W3168678903","https://openalex.org/W3171619998","https://openalex.org/W3172452057","https://openalex.org/W3178701007","https://openalex.org/W3180119292","https://openalex.org/W3183304837","https://openalex.org/W3187869944","https://openalex.org/W3206349396","https://openalex.org/W4252654261","https://openalex.org/W4284682233","https://openalex.org/W4285032067","https://openalex.org/W4299559948","https://openalex.org/W4308244727","https://openalex.org/W4313547544","https://openalex.org/W4319150689","https://openalex.org/W4320168818","https://openalex.org/W4367693670","https://openalex.org/W4381884129","https://openalex.org/W4384155506","https://openalex.org/W4385301298","https://openalex.org/W4391998095","https://openalex.org/W4401907080","https://openalex.org/W4401907279"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2033512842","https://openalex.org/W4233600955","https://openalex.org/W4322734194","https://openalex.org/W3116237489","https://openalex.org/W2913665393","https://openalex.org/W2369695847","https://openalex.org/W3005535424","https://openalex.org/W2994319598","https://openalex.org/W2047067935","https://openalex.org/W1607054433"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Simulation-based":[1],"testing":[2,33,48,81,93,237],"represents":[3],"an":[4,77,98],"important":[5],"step":[6],"to":[7,35,164,206],"ensure":[8],"the":[9,30,51,80,94,147,166,171,189,196,201,212,215,220],"reliability":[10],"of":[11,32,53,97,121,131,149,151,186,214,222,238],"autonomous":[12,37,63,99,125,239],"driving":[13,168,240],"software.":[14,241],"In":[15,42],"practice,":[16],"when":[17],"companies":[18],"rely":[19],"on":[20,65,87,92,127],"third-party":[21],"general-purpose":[22,67],"simulators,":[23,160],"either":[24],"for":[25,142],"in-house":[26],"or":[27],"outsourced":[28],"testing,":[29],"generalizability":[31],"results":[34],"real":[36],"vehicles":[38],"is":[39,176,181,204],"at":[40,210],"stake.":[41],"this":[43],"paper,":[44],"we":[45,110],"enhance":[46],"simulation-based":[47],"by":[49,200],"introducing":[50],"notion":[52],"digital":[54,107,119,202,216],"siblings":[55,203],"\u2014a":[56],"multi-simulator":[57,115],"approach":[58,86,116,135,230],"that":[59,73,195],"tests":[60],"a":[61,88,114,118,122,128,179],"given":[62],"vehicle":[64,126],"multiple":[66],"simulators":[68,105],"built":[69],"with":[70],"different":[71],"technologies,":[72],"operate":[74],"collectively":[75],"as":[76,106],"ensemble":[78,197],"in":[79,146,184,235],"process.":[82],"We":[83,101,218],"exemplify":[84],"our":[85,223,229],"case":[89,224],"study":[90,225],"focused":[91],"lane-keeping":[95],"component":[96],"vehicle.":[100],"use":[102],"two":[103],"open-source":[104],"siblings,":[108],"and":[109,138,178,226],"empirically":[111],"compare":[112],"such":[113],"against":[117],"twin":[120],"physical":[123],"scaled":[124],"large":[129],"set":[130],"test":[132,140,155],"cases.":[133],"Our":[134,191],"requires":[136],"generating":[137],"running":[139],"cases":[141,156,185],"each":[143,207],"individual":[144,208],"simulator,":[145],"form":[148],"sequences":[150],"road":[152],"points.":[153],"Then,":[154],"are":[157],"migrated":[158],"between":[159],"using":[161],"feature":[162],"maps":[163],"characterize":[165],"exercised":[167],"conditions.":[169],"Finally,":[170],"joint":[172],"predicted":[173],"failure":[174,180,198],"probability":[175],"computed,":[177],"reported":[182],"only":[183],"agreement":[187],"among":[188],"siblings.":[190],"empirical":[192],"evaluation":[193],"shows":[194],"predictor":[199],"superior":[205],"simulator":[209],"predicting":[211],"failures":[213],"twin.":[217],"discuss":[219],"findings":[221],"detail":[227],"how":[228],"can":[231],"help":[232],"researchers":[233],"interested":[234],"automated":[236]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-07-23T08:03:31.855105","created_date":"2024-05-18T00:00:00"}
